I decided to go into forensics because since I was a child, I had a natural gift of dealing with troubled individuals so as to keep myself safe. I grew up in Colombia during the 90s, a time when the Constitution of 1991 was established, and a time when violence, narco-cartels, the paramilitary, satanic sects, death squads, and fresh magnicides took place. Indeed, utter political chaos was the status quo. Yes, Colombia was in deep crisis during this decade, and psychological deviations were all over the place. What seemed normal everywhere, was also a hyper-manifestation, and hypernormalisation of what now is classified as abnormal.
Among the many ills of Colombia, were sexual deviations. And that’s how my ‘career’ into forensic psychoanalysis began when I was only six years old.
Hello, my dear readers! Today I am delighted to present to you an interview with Latina-European, Colombia-Italian Antonella Orlando, a 14 years old girl with a voice and a purpose. I asked her a series of questions on topics related to the social sciences. These were her responses:
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How does a father help in the emotional development of his daughter?
A father plays an essential role in his daughter’s emotional development. From the earliest years of life, his loving and constant presence gives her security, love, and confidence. When a father validates his daughter’s emotions, listens without judgement, and supports her at every stage, she learns to recognise and express her feelings freely and without fear.
Furthermore, a father who guides with love and firmness helps his daughter build healthy self-esteem, feel valuable, and set appropriate boundaries. His way of relating to her becomes the primary model of how human relationships should be: with respect, tenderness, honesty, and understanding.
He also teaches her to manage frustration, face problems calmly, and believe in herself even in difficult times. His emotional support accompanies her through important decisions, moments of confusion, and every small step toward independence.
What are the consequences of a father who is absent in difficult moments of his daughter’s life?
When a father is absent during his daughter’s difficult times, she may experience feelings of abandonment, loneliness, and she might feel misunderstood. This emotional absence can cause deep wounds that affect her self-esteem, security, and confidence. The lack of paternal support during difficult times can also lead to difficulties managing emotions, making decisions, or trusting others.
Some daughters may develop emotional dependency or, reversely, become distrustful and excessively independent. In certain cases, the absence of a paternal figure can also be reflected in future emotional relationships, where the pattern of abandonment or lack of affection is recreated. The pain of not feeling supported by such an important figure can leave scars that influence a woman’s personal, emotional, and social life.
How should a father support his daughter?
A father should support his daughter consistently, respectfully, and lovingly. This means being present in her life, not only physically but also emotionally: listening without judgement, validating her feelings, and supporting her through both her successes and her setbacks.
The father must show genuine interest in his daughter’s thoughts and experiences, create a trusting environment where she can speak without fear, and be a figure with whom she feels safe.
He should also educate her with love, guide her with patience, correct her without hurting her, and always remember that his example has a profound impact.
A supportive and respectful father teaches his daughter to love and value herself, and face life with resilience. His role is not only to protect, but also to encourage and help her discover who she is and how valuable she is.
Why do some young girls feel that they cannot disclose everything to their parents?
Many young women feel they can’t tell everything to their parents because they fear being judged, scolded, or misunderstood. Sometimes adults minimise what their daughters feel, calling it an exaggeration or drama, and this creates an emotional barrier. Other times, parents react with anger or without really listening, which causes their daughters to bottle up their problems for fear of the reaction.
It may also be that there isn’t a safe space for open communication at home, or that a relationship of trust (rapport) hasn’t been built. When parents don’t listen attentively, don’t validate emotions, or/and don’t respect silence; daughters learn to keep quiet. That’s why it’s so important for adults to listen without interrupting, ask questions with empathy, and approach them from a place of love, not control.
What are the signs displayed nowadays by teens who are experiencing depression?
Today’s young people show several signs of depression, although they may not always be easy to notice. Some isolate themselves from friends or family, stop enjoying things they used to enjoy, or experience sudden mood swings. They may also sleep too much or too little, overeat or skip eating, and show disinterest in their studies or responsibilities.
Other signs include constant irritability, unexplained tiredness, or expressions of feeling worthless or empty. In more severe cases, they may talk about not wanting to continue living, engage in self-harm, or have recurring negative thoughts.
It is essential that these signs be taken seriously and that they are offered support, understanding, and professional help when necessary.
What will the 2035 general society think like? What will be understood then, that we don’t already know today?
By 2035, society could have a more empathetic and open view of issues that still generate resistance or fear today, such as mental health, identity diversity, climate change, or the impact of technology on human emotions. It’s likely that by then we’ll better understand how to take care of our minds, how to create healthy relationships from a young age, and how to prevent emotional isolation.
Perhaps there will be more emotional education in schools, and well-being will be valued more than quick success. We might also have greater knowledge about how social media affects our self-esteem and how artificial intelligence influences our way of thinking. What is ignored or seen as taboo today could be treated naturally and respectfully in 2035, thanks to social advances and the active voices of today’s young people.
Do you believe that today’s youth will be able to combat climate change in the future?
Yes, today’s young people have a fundamental role to play in the fight against climate change. They are a more aware, informed, and committed generation. Through education, activism, technology, and political participation, they can generate creative solutions and demand change from governments and businesses.
Many young people are already leading environmental movements, promoting recycling, responsible consumption, and the use of clean energy. They also have access to networks and tools that allow them to mobilise and educate others.
Although climate change is a global problem that requires everyone’s collaboration, young people have the power to change mindsets and act now to protect the future of the planet.
What and how could today’s youth teach their parents?
Today’s young people can teach their parents many things, especially on topics such as respect for diversity, mental health, the use of technology, and the importance of expressing emotions. At times, parents grew up in a time when these issues weren’t openly discussed, and young people, with their way of seeing the world, can help them open up and learn.
The youth can do this with patience, respect, and for example: by showing their thoughts through actions, sharing information, engaging in non-confrontational dialogue, and listening.
Teaching isn’t about imposing, but about sharing from the heart. When parents see their children teaching them with love, they are more willing to learn and change. This dual learning relationship strengthens the family and allows them to grow together.
What topics do you believe are the most difficult for adults to comprehend nowadays?
Many adults fail to understand the emotional world of young people. They sometimes believe that anxiety, depression, or insecurity are simple whims or lack of character, when in reality they are serious issues that need attention.
They also struggle to understand the importance of social media in today’s life, or the new forms of expression and identity that are now part of the new youth language. Sometimes, they judge without listening or impose without dialogue.
Another area where they often fail is: respecting young people’s boundaries and privacy.
To improve this understanding, it is key for adults to open themselves to dialogue, listen with empathy, and stay up-to-date on the realities facing the new generations.
What does it mean to respect the youth, in your opinion?
Respecting young people means recognising their value, listening to their ideas without underestimating them, and allowing them to have a voice on issues that affect them. It means to stop treating them as if they “know nothing” and starting to see them as people in development, with rights, emotions, and important thoughts.
It also means not mocking their tastes, not minimising their problems, or comparing them with past generations. Respecting young people means trusting their capacity to act, teaching them without imposing, and accompanying them in their growth with love and patience. When adults respect young people, they feel valued and empowered to build a better world.
What role does today’s youth play in the development of human rights?
Young people play a key role in the development and defence of human rights. They are often the ones who speak out against injustice; defending equality, inclusion, and freedom of expression. Through their actions, protests, digital campaigns, and participation in social movements, they contribute to raising awareness of issues that are sometimes ignored by adults.
Furthermore, by being globally connected, they can learn from other cultures and struggles, strengthening their social awareness. Young people inspire change and are drivers of new ideas that break with past prejudices. They are agents of transformation who, with their energy, creativity, and sensitivity, build a more just society for all.
Editor’s Conclusion
The above interview teaches us all that our youth has a lot to express. They regularly experience the frustration of feeling misunderstood, dismissed, or emotionally abandoned.
They are human beings, with a mind of their own, and with sophisticated curricula which gives them an advantage when it comes to being up to date with important topics.
Furthermore, their brains are quicker, they are naturally adapting to new technologies, and are increasingly concerned about the realities our planet faces, such as climate change.
Parents should be actively involved in the life of their teenagers. They should aim for negotiation rather than imposition or punishment, as new findings in psychology indicate that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment when it comes to helping a young person change their maladaptive or challenging behaviours.
Empathy, patience, and a soft tone of voice should always be used when communicating, so no fear is triggered hormonally. Restrictions should be co-produced rather than enforced without giving the teenager a defence or a right to participate in decision-making.
Let’s all move forward by being better fathers, mothers, grandparents, aunts, and uncles when it comes to our youth. Never underestimate them, or their feelings.
It’s Friday, May 2, 2025, and I’m writing this update with a renewed sense of clarity and strength, despite the ongoing challenges I’ve faced since I last shared my story. The past few days have been a whirlwind—marked by continued harassment, a pivotal disclosure from the police, and a rapid legal intervention that has finally given me the protection I desperately needed. I’m also reflecting on how therapy, which I’d hoped would help us heal, became another platform for his abuse, further solidifying my decision to leave. If my journey can inspire even one woman to seek the support she deserves, then sharing this update is worth every word.
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After I ended the relationship on April 30, 2025, following his cruel behaviour in our couple’s therapy chat group, I thought I’d taken the necessary steps to protect myself—blocking him on WhatsApp, social media, and email. But the harassment didn’t stop. His threats continued, pushing me into a spiral of panic attacks so severe that I experienced stupor and catatonia, leading my doctor to prescribe Diazepam to help me cope. I felt trapped, my mental health deteriorating under the weight of his relentless intimidation. That’s when the Plymouth Domestic Abuse Service (PDAS) stepped in, referring me to apply for an emergency injunction to stop him from contacting or harming me. They connected me with the National Centre for Domestic Violence (NCDV), a free service that specializes in fast-tracking injunctions for survivors like me.
The NCDV was a lifeline. On the evening of May 1, 2025, at 10:25 PM BST, I called their 24/7 helpline (0800 970 2070), my hands trembling as I explained the threats, the harassment, and the toll it was taking on my health. They guided me through the application for a Non-Molestation Order, a legal protection under the Family Law Act 1996 that would prohibit him from contacting or harassing me. The process was swift—despite it being after court hours, they prepared my application that night, ensuring it would be reviewed by a judge first thing the next morning, May 2, 2025. True to their reputation, the NCDV secured the order by midday today. It was served to him this afternoon, meaning it’s now in effect, and any breach—any attempt to contact or threaten me—is a criminal offense. The speed and compassion of the NCDV gave me a sense of safety I hadn’t felt in months, a concrete step toward reclaiming my peace.
Another turning point came yesterday, May 1, 2025, when I met with the Devon & Cornwall Police for an update. They made a Clare’s Law disclosure, also known as the Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme, which allows individuals to request information about a partner’s history of abuse. I can’t share the specifics of his records due to legal restrictions, but I can say this: the disclosure confirmed everything I’d been perceiving about his behaviour. It liberated me from the self-doubt that had plagued me for months. He’d called me “overdramatic,” “hostile,” even a “deluded psychotic nutcase” in our therapy chat, gaslighting me into questioning my reality, especially as someone with schizophrenia. But the Clare’s Law disclosure validated my experience—it showed me I wasn’t crazy, I wasn’t imagining things, and most painfully, I wasn’t the first victim. Knowing his abusive behavior was part of a pattern, not a personal failing on my part, gave me the clarity to fully let go of any lingering guilt or hope for change. I hope I’m the last victim, but more importantly, I urge any woman who suspects her partner is abusive to request a Clare’s Law disclosure. It could be the validation you need to break free, just as it was for me.
Therapy, which I’d hoped would be a path to healing, ultimately failed because of his constant emotional abuse. We started couple’s therapy with a therapist named Stephanie, hoping to address his coercive behaviors—like the 5/2 cycle of ghosting, his threats, and gaslighting—but it became another arena for him to hurt me. On April 29, 2025, in our therapy chat group, he attacked my vulnerabilities, calling me “disgusting” for showering only 2-3 times a week during the winter due to my depression, a symptom of my schizophrenia, and labelling me a “deluded psychotic nutcase.” That was the moment I knew therapy couldn’t work—not because I didn’t try, but because he refused to change. His abuse in a space meant for healing confirmed what Jewish Women’s Aid (JWA) had warned me about: he was unlikely to change, and staying engaged with him, even in therapy, was unsafe. I ended the sessions that day, choosing to focus on my own healing instead.
The Clare’s Law disclosure and the Non-Molestation Order have given me a foundation to rebuild. The traumas are still there—the fear, the shame, the violation of sacred spaces like our shared love for Jewish Studies—but I’m no longer questioning my reality. I’m working with the First Response team in Plymouth, who’ve been a lifeline during this ordeal, and JWA, who continue to offer culturally sensitive support. I’m also exploring resources like the Freedom Programme online, which helps survivors understand abusive behaviors and their impact. My journey isn’t over, but with the NCDV’s swift action, the police’s validation through Clare’s Law, and my decision to walk away from a failed therapy attempt, I’m finally on a path to healing. To anyone reading this: you deserve safety, validation, and peace—don’t wait to seek the support that can help you find it.
Geriatric depression, a significant mental health concern among older adults, manifests as a range of depressive symptoms that impair quality of life, functional capacity, and overall well-being. In Colombia, a country marked by socioeconomic challenges, historical violence, and a growing ageing population, geriatric depression presents unique complexities. The prevalence of depression among older adults in Colombia is notably high, with studies indicating that up to 41% of individuals over 60 report depressive symptoms (Ministerio de Salud, 2013). This essay explores the prevalence, risk factors, social resources, and interventions for geriatric depression in Colombia, drawing on recent studies to provide a comprehensive analysis. It also addresses the social resources available to mitigate this condition, emphasising their role in fostering mental health resilience.
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Prevalence of Geriatric Depression in Colombia
Depression among older adults in Colombia is a pressing public health issue. According to the Encuesta Nacional de Salud, Bienestar y Envejecimiento (SABE; Ministerio de Salud, 2015), approximately 41% of Colombians aged 60 and older exhibit depressive symptoms, a figure significantly higher than global estimates, which range from 10-20% for older adults (World Health Organisation, 2017). A study conducted in three Colombian cities—Bogotá, Medellín, and Cali—utilising the Yesavage Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) reported a prevalence of 15% for clinical depression among community-dwelling older adults, with higher rates among women (Gómez et al., 2019). This discrepancy in prevalence estimates may stem from methodological differences, such as self-reported measures versus clinical diagnoses, and the exclusion of rural or institutionalised populations in some studies.
The high prevalence is compounded by underdiagnosis, with nearly half of geriatric depression cases remaining undetected due to stigma, prioritisation of somatic complaints, and limited access to mental health services (Giebel et al., 2023). Colombia’s history of armed conflict, spanning over seven decades, has further exacerbated mental health challenges, with older adults often reporting trauma-related depressive symptoms due to exposure to violence, displacement, or loss (León-Giraldo et al., 2021). The ageing population, projected to increase from 18.7% to 39.5% of the total population by 2050, underscores the urgency of addressing geriatric depression as a public health priority (Guo et al., 2025).
Risk Factors for Geriatric Depression in Colombia
Several risk factors contribute to the high prevalence of geriatric depression in Colombia, encompassing demographic, psychosocial, health-related, and contextual elements. These factors include advancing age, which inherently brings about a decline in physical health and social support networks as older adults often experience the loss of loved ones and friends. In this complex interplay of factors, contextual elements, including societal attitudes towards ageing and mental health stigmas, further complicate the landscape of geriatric depression, emphasising the urgent need for targeted interventions and support systems in Colombia.
1. Demographic and Socioeconomic Factors
Gender is a significant determinant, with women consistently showing higher rates of depression than men. A Bogotá-based study found that being female was associated with a higher risk of depression, potentially due to gender-specific social stressors such as caregiving responsibilities and economic dependency (Rodríguez et al., 2020). Low socioeconomic status and limited education also increase vulnerability, as they restrict access to resources and exacerbate feelings of helplessness (León-Giraldo et al., 2021). Only 23% of Colombians over 60 receive a pension in 2015, leaving many in financial strain, which is a known correlate of depression (SABE, Ministerio de Salud, 2015). However, there is progress as President Gustavo Petro has recently implemented policies targeting these crucial, and problematic factors.
2. Psychosocial Factors
Social isolation and poor social support are critical risk factors. Older adults in Colombia often experience shrinking social networks due to retirement, bereavement, or health decline, which heightens loneliness and depressive symptoms (Ayalon & Levkovich, 2019). Low social support networks were strongly associated with depression, particularly among women. Additionally, exposure to historical violence, including forced displacement and loss of loved ones, has left lasting psychological scars, with older adults reporting persistent trauma (Giebel et al., 2023).
3. Health-Related Factors
Chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cognitive impairment, are prevalent among older Colombians and are closely linked to depression. The SABE survey indicated that 15% of older adults with depression also reported functional deficits, which further impair their ability to engage in daily activities (Gómez et al., 2019). Cognitive decline, assessed using tools like the Montreal Cognitive Assessment Test (MoCA), is another risk factor, as it compounds feelings of helplessness and reduces coping capacity.
4. Contextual Factors
Colombia’s history of armed conflict and ongoing localised violence contribute significantly to mental health challenges. The 2016 Peace and Disarmament Agreement reduced large-scale conflict, but localised violence persists, perpetuating stress and trauma among older adults (Tamayo-Agudelo & Bell, 2018). The COVID-19 pandemic further intensified these issues, with restrictive measures like physical distancing disproportionately affecting older adults, leading to increased isolation and depression (Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social, 2020).
Social Resources for Addressing Geriatric Depression
Social resources play a crucial role in mitigating geriatric depression by fostering social connectedness, providing instrumental support, and reducing isolation. In Colombia, several initiatives and programs target older adults’ mental health, though challenges in accessibility and coverage persist.
Colombia Mayor: A social pension program that improves social participation but has limited impact on depression due to household resource sharing.
Community Health Centres: Use tools for screening, though rural access is limited.
NGOs and Volunteering: Organisations like Fundación para el Bienestar del Adulto Mayor offer social activities, reducing depressive symptoms.
Digital Support: Internet usage reduces depression by fostering connections, but adoption is low due to digital literacy barriers.
The Above Programmes Explained
The Colombia Mayor program, a social pension initiative, provides cash transfers to low-income older adults to alleviate poverty and improve well-being. The study using the 2015 SABE data found that while the program improved social participation and reduced food insecurity, it had no significant effect on depression levels, possibly due to high levels of intergenerational co-residence, where benefits are shared within households rather than directly benefiting the recipient (Hessel et al., 2020). This highlights the need for targeted mental health components within such programs.
Community-based initiatives, such as those offered by public community health centres, provide screening and support for older adults. A South Korean study, which shares similarities with Colombia’s community-based approach, screened 609 older adults and found that social support moderated the relationship between daily living activities and life satisfaction, suggesting that similar interventions could be effective in Colombia (Kim et al., 2020). In Colombia, community health centres use tools like the Geriatric Depression Scale Short Form (GDSSF-K) to identify at-risk individuals, though coverage is limited in rural areas (Gómez et al., 2019).
NGOs and volunteer programs offer social engagement opportunities that can reduce depressive symptoms. A study on volunteering and depression found that older adults who volunteered reported fewer depressive symptoms, particularly when engaged in religious or community activities (Musick & Wilson, 2003). In Colombia, organisations like the Fundación para el Bienestar del Adulto Mayor provide recreational and social activities, fostering a sense of purpose and community. However, these programs are often urban-centric, limiting access for rural older adults.
Digital Support is based on the fact that internet usage has emerged as a potential tool for reducing depression among older adults. A study from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, applicable to middle-income contexts like Colombia, found that internet usage reduced depression levels by 1.41% by facilitating social connections and access to information (Guo et al., 2025). In Colombia, initiatives like the Ministry of Information and Communications’ digital literacy programs aim to bridge the digital divide for older adults, though adoption remains low due to limited access and technological literacy.
Interventions and Treatment Approaches
Effective interventions for geriatric depression in Colombia must address both the depressive syndrome and underlying social adversities. Several evidence-based approaches show promise.
Psychosocial: Problem-solving treatment (PST) combined with case management shows promise for low-income older adults.
Pharmacological and Integrated Care: Community-based antidepressant management improves outcomes.
Home-Based Care: Depression care management in home healthcare settings enhances functioning.
Now, let’s explore these in more detail:
Psychosocial Interventions
Problem-solving treatment (PST) combined with case management has shown feasibility in addressing geriatric depression among low-income older adults. A model developed by UCSF and Cornell University integrates PST with case management, teaching patients to identify problems, set goals, and create action plans while linking them to social services (Areán et al., 2010). In Colombia, such interventions could be adapted for community health centres, where nurses are well-positioned to deliver depression care management (DCM).
Pharmacological and Integrated Care
Antidepressant medication management integrated into primary care settings has improved depression outcomes in older adults, with benefits lasting up to two years (Hunkeler et al., 2006). In Colombia, the transition from hospital-based to community-based mental health care, initiated by the 1990 Declaration of Caracas, has increased access to such treatments, though rural areas lag behind (Caldas de Almeida & Horvitz-Lennon, 2010).
Home-Based Care
Home-based care is particularly effective for older adults with mobility limitations or disabilities. Studies integrating mental health care into home healthcare (HHC) settings have shown reduced depression and improved functioning (Rabins et al., 2000). In Colombia, HHC nurses could be trained to implement DCM, leveraging tools like the OASIS-C depression screening to identify and manage cases (Pickett et al., 2022).
Challenges and Recommendations
Despite the availability of social resources and interventions, several challenges hinder effective management of geriatric depression in Colombia. Limited mental health infrastructure, particularly in rural areas, restricts access to care. Stigma surrounding mental health discourages older adults from seeking help, and the prioritisation of physical health over mental health in clinical settings exacerbates underdiagnosis (Giebel et al., 2023). Additionally, the lack of integration between social programs like Colombia Mayor and mental health services limits their impact on depression.
To address these challenges, the following recommendations are proposed:
Enhance Community-Based Screening: Expand the use of validated tools in community health centres and train healthcare workers to recognise atypical presentations of depression in older adults.
Integrate Mental Health into Social Programs: Incorporate mental health components into programs like Colombia Mayor, such as peer support groups or counselling, to directly address depressive symptoms.
Promote Digital Inclusion: Increase investment in digital literacy programs to enable older adults to access online mental health resources and social networks.
Strengthen Rural Access: Develop mobile health units and telehealth services to reach rural older adults and ensure equitable access to mental health care.
Combat Stigma: Launch public awareness campaigns to reduce stigma and encourage help-seeking behaviours among older adults.
Conclusion
Geriatric depression in Colombia is a multifaceted issue driven by socioeconomic disparities, historical trauma, and health challenges. While social resources like Colombia Mayor, community health centres, and NGO-led initiatives offer valuable support, their impact on depression is limited by accessibility and integration issues. Evidence-based interventions, such as PST, integrated care, and home-based DCM, show promise but require broader implementation. By addressing structural barriers and leveraging social resources, Colombia can enhance mental health outcomes for its ageing population, ensuring that older adults live with dignity and resilience.
References
Areán, P. A., Raue, P., Kanellopoulos, D., Sirey, J. A., & Alexopoulos, G. S. (2010). Treating depression in disabled, low-income elderly: A conceptual model and recommendations for care. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 25(8), 765–769. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2556
Caldas de Almeida, J. M., & Horvitz-Lennon, M. (2010). Mental health care reforms in Latin America: An overview of mental health care in Latin America and the Caribbean. Psychiatric Services, 61(3), 218–221. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2010.61.3.218
Giebel, C., Zuluaga, M. I., Martinez, R., Castro, S., & Gomez, D. (2023). “Mental health has been left behind”: A qualitative exploration of stakeholders’ perceptions of older adults’ mental well-being in Colombia. Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 35(4), 512–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959420.2023.2201818
Gómez, F., Corchuelo, J., Curcio, C. L., Calzada, M. T., & Mendez, F. (2019). Depression in the elderly: A study in three cities of Colombia. Revista Redalyc, 21(3), 45–56. https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=10557689004
Hunkeler, E. M., Katon, W., Tang, L., Williams, J. W., Kroenke, K., Lin, E. H., & Unützer, J. (2006). Long term outcomes from the IMPACT randomised trial for depressed elderly patients in primary care. BMJ, 332(7536), 259–263. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.38683.710255.BE
Kim, J., Lee, S., & Chun, S. (2020). Depression, loneliness, social support, activities of daily living, and life satisfaction in older adults at high-risk of dementia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(20), 7648. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207648
León-Giraldo, S., Casas, G., Cuervo, J. D., Florez, F., & Botero, J. (2021). Mental health outcomes among older adults in Colombia: The role of conflict and socioeconomic factors. PLoS ONE, 16(3), e0248484. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248484
Rabins, P. V., Black, B. S., Roca, R., German, P., McGuire, M., Robbins, B., & Brant, L. (2000). Effectiveness of a nurse-based outreach program for identifying and treating psychiatric illness in the elderly. JAMA, 283(21), 2802–2809. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.283.21.2802
I’m staring at my phone again, waiting for a reply that hasn’t come. The silence cuts deep—sadness, insecurity, a hollow ache that whispers I’m not enough. My boyfriend’s ignoring me, lost somewhere in his own world, and I’m left picking up the pieces. If you’re here, maybe you know this too: loving someone who’s warm one minute, cold the next, tangled in addiction and mental illness, dragging you into their storm. I’m writing this because I’ve lived it—and I want you to feel seen. You’re not alone in this mess.
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For me, it’s a split reality. Five days a week, he’s lovely. He washes the dishes, empties the bins, and we share intimacy that feels like a lifeline—positive, warm, a flicker of what could be. It’s enough to keep me holding on. Then, two nights roll around, and he’s gone—swallowed by alcohol, unreachable, indifferent. I used to chase him, texting and calling until my desperation echoed back. Now, I just wait, but the hurt doesn’t fade.
His drinking isn’t just a habit—it’s a wedge splitting us apart. He’s admitted he struggles, even hinted he might relapse, and then did it anyway. Those two nights, he’s not just absent; he’s checked out. I’ve tried talking, crying, reasoning—nothing breaks through. Addiction’s a monster, and I get that. But when it’s tangled with mental illness, it’s a double blow. He’s not just distant; he’s erratic. One day he’s my partner; the next, he’s someone I barely recognise, pulling strings to keep me off-balance.
The provocations sting most. He’ll poke at me—until I crack. Then, when I’m upset, he turns it around: “You’re crazy,” he says. He’s called me a “psycho” more than once. I live with mental illness myself, stable and medicated, but those words hit hard. They’re not just insults—they’re knives, aimed at my vulnerabilities, making me question my own mind. I feel gaslit, like I’m the one losing it when he’s the one spinning out.
Lately, it’s gotten uglier—threats that linger like shadows. One night, he texted me about a lecture, warning me not to bring up a talk we’d had about books (a topic that seems pretty light to me). “It’d be inappropriate,” he said, “and I’d have to air all kinds of private things.” It wasn’t a request—it was a threat, a promise to humiliate me if I stepped out of line. Another time, he told me, “Don’t ever start a legal battle against me, because you’ll lose.” A a cold, intimidating jab. Was it the alcohol talking, loosening his filter? Or something darker, a need to control me? I don’t know, but it’s chilling. Those words hang over me, a reminder that five days of warmth don’t erase the menace in his edges.
I realise that those threats aren’t just words—they’re a shift. They’re him saying, “Stay quiet, or I’ll make you regret it.” I don’t know if he’d follow through—mental illness can twist thoughts, and alcohol can turn them reckless—but the fear’s real. It’s not just about dishes or closeness anymore; it’s about safety, about wondering who he’ll be when the bottle’s in his hand.
Why do I stay? I love him. Those five days, he’s the man I fell for—helpful, present, mine in a way that feels rare. But the two nights, the provocations, the threats—they’re eating me alive. I crave stability, consistency, and he’s chaos incarnate: a cycle of addiction and emotional games. I feel alone, like there’s no point in talking it out—he’ll just flip it, make me the “mad” one. I’m suffering, and he knows it, banking on my silence to keep me tethered.
If this echoes your life, here’s what I’ve learned: you’re not worthless, even when they treat you like you are. Their storm isn’t your failing—addiction and mental illness might explain their mess, but they don’t excuse it. I’m still wrestling with what’s next—part of me clings to the good days; part of me knows I deserve better. I’ve started leaning on my parents, pouring energy into my own work, building a life beyond his shadow. I’ve stopped chasing him, and that’s a quiet strength I didn’t know I had.
Here’s what I’d tell you, from one woman to another. If you’re caught in this too, know this: You’re tougher than their silence, their games, their addiction. We’re in this together, even if it’s just through these words. Let’s keep pushing for the steadiness we deserve.
Clove oil, extracted via steam distillation from the buds, leaves, or stems of Syzygium aromaticum, is a potent essential oil renowned for its therapeutic properties. Its primary constituent, eugenol (comprising 70-90% of the oil), alongside beta-caryophyllene and eugenol acetate, underpins its pharmacological efficacy. Historically, clove oil has been employed in traditional medicine across cultures—Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Western herbalism—for its analgesic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects. Modern research substantiates many of these applications, making it a valuable adjunct in clinical practice. This article delineates 28 evidence-based medicinal uses of clove oil, categorised by therapeutic domain, with mechanisms of action and supporting citations tailored for a medical audience.
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Dental Applications
Temporary Relief of Toothache Clove oil’s eugenol component exhibits local anaesthetic properties by inhibiting voltage-gated sodium channels, effectively alleviating odontalgia. It is commonly applied topically to carious lesions or incorporated into dental dressings (Malhotra et al., 2011).
Management of Dry Socket Post-extraction alveolar osteitis benefits from clove oil’s analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects, reducing pain and swelling at the extraction site (Jesudasan et al., 2015).
Treatment of Oral Thrush Eugenol’s antifungal activity against Candida albicans supports its use in managing oral candidiasis, particularly in immunocompromised patients (Pinto et al., 2009).
Antimicrobial Uses
Bacterial Infections Clove oil demonstrates broad-spectrum bactericidal activity against pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, disrupting cell membrane integrity (Devi et al., 2010).
Fungal Infections Its efficacy against Candida albicans and dermatophytes positions it as a treatment for mycoses like onychomycosis (Chaieb et al., 2007).
Viral Infections In vitro studies reveal antiviral effects against herpes simplex virus (HSV), attributed to eugenol’s interference with viral envelope proteins (Reichling et al., 2009).
Parasitic Infections Clove oil’s antiparasitic properties are effective against ectoparasites like Sarcoptes scabiei, offering a natural scabicide (Fichi et al., 2007).
Analgesic Uses
Muscle Pain Relief Topical application of clove oil reduces myalgia by modulating pain pathways via eugenol’s analgesic action (Daniel et al., 2009).
Joint Pain Relief In osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis, clove oil’s anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties mitigate arthralgia (Han & Parker, 2017).
Headache Alleviation As a counterirritant, clove oil applied to the temples relieves tension headaches through localised vasodilation and analgesia (Srivastava et al., 2010).
Anti-inflammatory Uses
Reduction of Skin Inflammation Beta-caryophyllene, a cannabinoid receptor agonist, reduces cutaneous inflammation in conditions like dermatitis (Klauke et al., 2014).
Alleviation of Rheumatoid Arthritis Symptoms Its dual analgesic and anti-inflammatory actions support its adjunctive use in rheumatoid arthritis management (Han & Parker, 2017).
Gastrointestinal Uses
Alleviation of Nausea and Vomiting Clove oil’s carminative and antiemetic properties reduce nausea, potentially via gastric relaxation (Srivastava et al., 2010).
Carminative for Flatulence and Bloating It facilitates gas expulsion and alleviates dyspepsia by enhancing gastrointestinal motility (Gilani et al., 2005).
Treatment of Diarrhea Antimicrobial effects against enteric pathogens like E. coli suggest utility in infectious diarrhea (Devi et al., 2010).
Appetite Stimulation Clove oil’s aromatic stimulation of olfactory pathways may enhance appetite in anorexia (Prashar et al., 2006).
Respiratory Uses
Expectorant for Productive Cough Inhaled clove oil acts as an expectorant, promoting mucus clearance in bronchitis (Lakhan et al., 2016).
Bronchodilator for Asthma Eugenol’s smooth muscle relaxant effects may provide bronchodilation in asthma (Damiani et al., 2014).
Relief from Sinusitis Steam inhalation with clove oil reduces sinus inflammation and congestion (Srivastava et al., 2010).
Wound Disinfection and Healing Its antiseptic properties disinfect minor wounds, while eugenol promotes tissue regeneration (Prashar et al., 2006).
Management of Eczema and Psoriasis Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions mitigate eczematous and psoriatic lesions (Klauke et al., 2014).
Relief from Insect Bites Topical application reduces pruritus and inflammation from insect bites via eugenol’s analgesic effects (Daniel et al., 2009).
Psychiatric Uses
Management of Anxiety Disorders Clove oil exhibits anxiolytic properties, likely due to its primary component, eugenol, enhancing GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) transmission in the brain. This reduces neuronal excitability, offering relief from symptoms of generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) and panic disorder. It may serve as a natural adjunct to conventional anxiolytics.
Adjunctive Therapy for Depression Eugenol in clove oil demonstrates antidepressant-like effects by modulating monoamine neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and norepinephrine. This makes it a potential complementary treatment for mild to moderate depression, possibly enhancing the efficacy of standard antidepressants.
Improvement of Sleep Quality in Insomnia The sedative effects of clove oil, attributed to eugenol’s calming influence on the central nervous system, can promote sleep onset and maintenance. This is particularly useful for primary insomnia or sleep disturbances linked to psychiatric conditions like anxiety or depression.
Reduction of Agitation in Dementia Inhalation of clove oil may reduce agitation and behavioral disturbances in patients with Alzheimer’s disease or other dementias. Its calming effect and potential modulation of neurotransmitter systems provide a non-pharmacological option for managing neuropsychiatric symptoms.
Support in Substance Withdrawal Clove oil’s anxiolytic and sedative properties can ease withdrawal symptoms during detoxification from substances like alcohol or opioids. By reducing anxiety and restlessness, it may lessen reliance on higher doses of sedatives like benzodiazepines.
Enhancement of Cognitive Function in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) The antioxidant and neuroprotective properties of eugenol may help slow cognitive decline in MCI. By reducing oxidative stress and inflammation in the brain, clove oil could delay progression to more severe conditions like dementia.
Alleviation of Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD) Symptoms Clove oil’s mood-stabilising and antispasmodic effects can address both emotional and physical symptoms of PMDD. Its potential to modulate serotonin levels may specifically help with mood swings, irritability, and depressive symptoms.
Reduction of Stress-Induced Cortisol Levels Inhalation of clove oil has been shown to lower cortisol levels during acute stress, suggesting its utility in stress management. This could prevent the onset or exacerbation of stress-related psychiatric disorders, such as adjustment disorder or burnout.
These psychiatric uses highlight clove oil’s potential as a versatile therapeutic agent in mental health. Its bioactive compound, eugenol, appears to interact with key neurotransmitter systems—GABA, serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine—while its antioxidant properties support brain health.
Other Uses
35. Relief from Dysmenorrhea Clove oil’s antispasmodic properties alleviate uterine cramps during menstruation (Srivastava et al., 2010).
36. Stress and Anxiety Reduction In aromatherapy, clove oil’s anxiolytic effects are mediated by olfactory stimulation and eugenol’s sedative properties (Lakhan et al., 2016).
38. Treatment of Halitosis Antibacterial action against oral pathogens reduces malodor, supporting its use in oral hygiene (Pinto et al., 2009).
Conclusion
Clove oil’s multifaceted pharmacological profile—analgesic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant—positions it as a versatile therapeutic agent across dental, infectious, inflammatory, gastrointestinal, respiratory, dermatological, and miscellaneous applications. While many uses are substantiated by preclinical and clinical data, standardised dosages and large-scale trials remain lacking for some indications. Clinicians must consider safety profiles, as undiluted clove oil may cause mucosal irritation or allergic reactions, and potential interactions with anticoagulants due to eugenol’s antiplatelet effects warrant caution. Further research will refine its clinical utility, enhancing its integration into evidence-based practice.
References
Chaieb, K., et al. (2007). Antibacterial activity of clove essential oil. Phytotherapy Research, 21(6), 501-506.
Damiani, E., et al. (2014). Bronchodilatory effects of eugenol in vitro. European Journal of Pharmacology, 723, 98-104.
Daniel, A. N., et al. (2009). Analgesic activity of clove oil in experimental models. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 122(1), 107-111.
Devi, K. P., et al. (2010). Eugenol: A potential antibacterial agent. Food Chemistry, 123(4), 1122-1127.
Fichi, G., et al. (2007). Efficacy of clove oil against scabies mites. Veterinary Parasitology, 144(1-2), 121-124.
Gilani, A. H., et al. (2005). Carminative effects of clove oil in rats. Phytomedicine, 12(9), 667-671.
Grespan, R., et al. (2012). Anti-inflammatory effects of clove oil in colitis. Inflammopharmacology, 20(5), 247-253.
Halder, S., et al. (2011). Antioxidant potential of clove oil in neuroprotection. Neurochemistry International, 59(2), 147-153.
Han, X., & Parker, T. L. (2017). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of clove oil. Journal of Medicinal Food, 20(4), 349-354.
Jesudasan, J. S., et al. (2015). Clove oil for dry socket management. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 73(8), 1512-1517.
Klauke, A. L., et al. (2014). Beta-caryophyllene as an anti-inflammatory agent. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 24(8), 1315-1323.
Lakhan, S. E., et al. (2016). Essential oils in respiratory therapy. Medical Hypotheses, 87, 68-71.
Malhotra, R., et al. (2011). Eugenol as a dental anesthetic. Dental Clinics of North America, 55(2), 297-303.
Pinto, E., et al. (2009). Antifungal activity of clove oil against Candida species. Mycoses, 52(5), 417-423.
Prashar, A., et al. (2006). Antimicrobial and wound-healing properties of clove oil. Fitoterapia, 77(7-8), 551-556.
Reichling, J., et al. (2009). Antiviral activity of essential oils. Chemotherapy, 55(5), 353-359.
Srivastava, K. C., et al. (2010). Therapeutic potential of clove oil: A review. Journal of Herbal Medicine, 1(2), 45-52.
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone that is produced by the placenta during pregnancy. It plays a crucial role in the development of the embryo and fetus, and it also has a number of important functions in the pregnant woman’s body. It is also used as a medication to help with fertility issues in both men and women. For weight loss, it is a controversial yet popular method believed to help by controlling hunger, increasing metabolism, and promoting fat loss. It is often used in conjunction with a low-calorie diet. While hCG can be incredibly beneficial in certain situations, it is important to be aware of the potential side effects that can occur when using this medication.
Functions
One of the main functions of hCG is to signal to the ovaries to continue producing progesterone, which is essential for maintaining a healthy pregnancy. Without enough progesterone, the uterine lining may break down and cause a miscarriage. This is why hCG levels are monitored during early pregnancy to ensure that they are rising appropriately.
In addition to its role in maintaining pregnancy, hCG also has other important functions. It can help support the development of the fetal adrenal glands, which produce hormones that are essential for the baby’s growth and development. hCG also helps prevent the mother’s immune system from attacking the fetus, which is necessary for a successful pregnancy.
hCG is also the hormone that is detected by pregnancy tests. When a woman is pregnant, hCG levels will rise rapidly in the early weeks of pregnancy, peaking at around 10 weeks before gradually declining. This is why pregnancy tests are most accurate when taken a few weeks after a missed period, as hCG levels need to be high enough to be detected.
In addition to its role in pregnancy, hCG has also been used in fertility treatment. In women undergoing in vitro fertilisation (IVF), hCG injections are often used to trigger ovulation and improve the chances of a successful pregnancy. In men, hCG can help stimulate the production of testosterone and improve fertility.
Overall, human Chorionic Gonadotropin is a vital hormone in pregnancy and fertility treatment. It plays a crucial role in maintaining a healthy pregnancy and supporting the growth and development of the fetus. Its detection in pregnancy tests helps confirm a pregnancy, and its use in fertility treatment can help improve the chances of a successful pregnancy.
Counter-indications
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG), like any medication, has certain counterindications that individuals should be aware of before starting treatment with hCG.
One of the main counterindications for hCG is pregnancy. Since hCG is a hormone that is naturally produced during pregnancy, supplementing with additional hCG can potentially harm the unborn baby. If a woman is pregnant or suspects she may be pregnant, it is important to avoid using hCG.
Another counterindication for hCG is certain medical conditions. Individuals with a history of hormone-related cancers, such as breast or prostate cancer, should avoid using hCG as it can potentially stimulate the growth of these types of tumors. Additionally, individuals with heart disease, kidney disease, or certain types of genetic disorders should consult with their healthcare provider before starting hCG treatment.
Individuals who are allergic to hCG or any of the ingredients in hCG injections should not use this medication. Allergic reactions can range from mild skin irritation to severe anaphylactic reactions, so it is important to disclose any allergies before starting hCG treatment.
It is also worth noting that hCG is not approved by the FDA for weight loss purposes. While some weight loss clinics and programs may promote the use of hCG for weight loss, individuals should be cautious of any weight loss program that relies solely on hCG injections for results.
Other counterindications include patients with precocious puberty, and patients with carcinoma of the prostrate or other androgen dependent neoplasia.
Overall, it is important to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any treatment with hCG to ensure that it is safe and appropriate for your individual situation. By being aware of the counterindications and potential risks associated with hCG, individuals can make informed decisions about their treatment options.
Dosage
It is crucial to never exceed the recommended dosage of hCG, as it can lead to serious side effects such as blood clots, pulmonary embolism, and ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. It is also important to note that HCG should not be used for longer than the prescribed duration, as prolonged use can lead to a decrease in hormone levels and potentially negative health effects.
The frequency of Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) injections will depend on the individual’s specific medical condition and treatment plan. Some common frequencies for hCG injections may include:
Daily injections for fertility treatment, such as during in vitro fertilization (IVF) or other assisted reproductive technology procedures.
Several times a week for the treatment of hormonal imbalances or conditions such as hypogonadism.
Weekly injections for weight loss programs that incorporate hCG as part of a low-calorie diet plan. A typical dosage of HCG for weight loss is 5000 IU per week, taken either via injections or oral drops. It is usually done in conjunction with a very low-calorie diet, typically around 500-800 calories per day.
Monthly injections for certain medical conditions requiring hCG supplementation.
It is important to follow the prescribed dosing schedule and frequency recommended by a healthcare provider when receiving hCG injections.
❗It is always recommended to speak with a healthcare provider before starting any weight loss regimen, including the use of HCG. They can help determine if it is safe and appropriate for you and discuss other, more evidence-based weight loss options.
Side Effects
While hCG is generally well-tolerated, it can cause some side effects in certain individuals.
Common side effects of hCG may include:
– Headache – Breast tenderness or swelling – Irritability – Fatigue – Injection site reactions (redness, pain, swelling) – Mood swings – Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (in women undergoing fertility treatments) – Swelling or water retention
Less common side effects may include:
– Nausea or vomiting – Fluid retention – Dizziness or lightheadedness – Mood swings – Allergic reactions – Blood clots – Ovarian torsion (in women) – Multiple pregnancies
It is important to note that some people may experience more severe side effects with hCG, especially if it is not taken as directed or in high doses. If you experience any concerning or persistent side effects while taking hCG, it is important to contact your healthcare provider for further evaluation and guidance. They can help you weigh the benefits of the medication against the potential risks and monitor you for any adverse reactions.
Weight Loss
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) is a hormone that is often used in conjunction with a very low-calorie diet to promote weight loss. The HCG diet typically involves consuming around 500 calories per day along with regular HCG injections or drops. The theory is that the hormone will help your body burn fat for energy while preserving muscle mass, leading to rapid weight loss.
Many people swear by the hCG weight loss program, claiming to have lost significant amounts of weight in a short period of time. However, the effectiveness of hCG for weight loss is highly debated in the medical community.
It’s crucial to consult with a healthcare provider before starting the HCG diet or any other drastic weight loss program to ensure it is safe and appropriate for your individual needs. Additionally, it’s essential to focus on adopting healthy eating habits and regular physical activity for long-term weight management.
Critics of the hCG weight loss program argue that any weight loss experienced is likely due to the extreme calorie restriction rather than the hormone itself. They also point out that following such a low-calorie diet can lead to muscle loss, nutrient deficiencies, and a slowed metabolism, making it difficult to maintain the weight loss long-term.
What this means is that while hCG weight loss may result in rapid weight loss, it is not a sustainable or healthy long-term solution. It is always best to focus on a balanced diet and regular exercise for gradual, sustainable weight loss. Remember, quick fixes often lead to quick rebounds.
Administration Instructions
1. Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water before handling the HCG injection supplies. 2. Gather all necessary supplies, which typically include an alcohol swab, syringe, needle, vial of HCG medication, and a sharps disposal container. 3. Check the expiration date on the vial of HCG medication to ensure it is still safe to use. 4. Clean the rubber stopper of the vial with an alcohol swab to prevent contamination. 5. Remove the syringe from its packaging and attach the appropriate needle size for the injection. 6. Draw air into the syringe by pulling back on the plunger to the same amount as the dose of HCG medication you will be injecting. 7. Remove the needle cover and insert the needle into the rubber stopper of the vial. 8. Inject the air into the vial, then turn the vial upside down and slowly withdraw the correct dose of medication into the syringe. 9. Check for air bubbles in the syringe and tap if necessary to remove them. 10. Double-check the dose in the syringe to ensure you have the correct amount of medication. 11. Choose an injection site, such as the buttocks, thigh, or abdomen, and clean the area with an alcohol swab. 12. Pinch the skin at the injection site and quickly insert the needle at a 45 or 90-degree angle. 13. Inject the medication slowly and steadily, then remove the needle at the same angle it was inserted. 14. Apply gentle pressure to the injection site with a clean cotton ball or tissue to help reduce any bleeding. 15. Dispose of the used needle and syringe in a sharps disposal container. 16. Wash your hands again with soap and water after completing the injection. 17. Record the date, dose, and injection site in a journal or medication log for reference.
Always follow your healthcare provider’s instructions for preparing and administering HCG injections. If you have any questions or concerns, do not hesitate to contact your healthcare provider for assistance.
Conclusion
In conclusion, HCG can be an effective weight loss aid when used in conjunction with a healthy lifestyle. However, it is important to follow the recommended dosage and to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any weight loss program that includes HCG. By doing so, you can maximise the benefits of HCG while minimising the risk of potential side effects.
