BETSHY

Category: Psychology

  • Ontological Insecurity: The Path of Existential Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Depth

    Ontological Insecurity: The Path of Existential Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Depth

    I’ve often grappled with questions of identity and stability. Who am I when the world feels unmoored? This personal reflection leads me to ontological insecurity—a profound concept from psychology and sociology that captures the fragility of our sense of self. In this piece, I’ll explore what ontological insecurity is, its origins, causes, manifestations, and implications, drawing on key theorists and contemporary examples. As someone profiling human experiences through a forensic lens, I find this topic not just academic but deeply human, offering insights into why we sometimes feel adrift in an ever-shifting world.

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    Ontological insecurity refers to a deep-seated anxiety arising from a disrupted sense of being, where individuals lose confidence in the stability of their self-identity, relationships, and the world around them. Coined by psychiatrist R.D. Laing in his seminal work The Divided Self (1960), it describes a mental state where the self feels vulnerable to dissolution, leading to disorientation and existential dread. Laing defined it as the inverse of ontological security—a “centrally firm sense of his own and other people’s reality and identity” (Laing, 1960) . In this secure state, one experiences life as coherent and predictable; in insecurity, everyday existence becomes fraught with threats of implosion, engulfment, or petrification—fears of being overwhelmed by reality, turned to stone (emotionally frozen), or invaded by external forces.

    Laing’s concept emerged from his psychoanalytic training and existential philosophy influences, particularly object relations theory and thinkers like Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre. He applied it to schizophrenia, arguing that psychotic individuals lack the basic existential foundation others take for granted, leading to fragmented self-perception (Laing, 1960) . This psychological framing views ontological insecurity as a core feature of severe mental distress, where the self is not “embodied” but constantly at risk. Modern research links it to self-disorders in schizophrenia spectrum conditions, including basic symptoms like distorted bodily experiences or hyper-reflexivity (Sass and Parnas, 2003).

    Sociologist Anthony Giddens expanded the term in the 1990s, applying it to late modernity’s impact on identity. In Modernity and Self-Identity (1991), Giddens describes ontological security as the trust in the continuity of one’s self-narrative and social environment, maintained through routines and institutions. Ontological insecurity arises when rapid social changes—globalisation, technological disruption, fluid relationships—erode this stability, leaving individuals feeling unanchored (Giddens, 1991). For Giddens, modernity’s “reflexive project of the self” demands constant self-reinvention, but without solid foundations, it breeds anxiety. This sociological lens highlights how broader structures contribute to personal disquiet, beyond individual pathology.

    Causes of ontological insecurity are multifaceted. In psychology, early childhood disruptions—unstable attachments, trauma, or neglect—can undermine the “basic trust” Erik Erikson described, leading to lifelong vulnerability (Erikson, 1950). Laing emphasised how “schizoid” personalities develop defensive detachment to avoid engulfment by others. Contemporary studies link it to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), where chronic stress alters neurodevelopment, impairing self-coherence (Felitti et al., 1998).

    Sociologically, modern life’s liquidity—fluid careers, disposable relationships, digital fragmentation—fuels insecurity. Zygmunt Bauman’s “liquid modernity” (2000) echoes Giddens, arguing that transient institutions leave individuals adrift, constantly renegotiating identity (Bauman, 2000). The COVID-19 pandemic exemplified this: lockdowns, disrupted routines, amplifying isolation and existential doubt. Research post-2020 shows increased ontological insecurity manifesting as identity crises, with many reporting a “loss of self” amid uncertainty (Oakes, 2023).

    Manifestations vary. Psychologically, it may appear as chronic anxiety, depersonalisation (feeling detached from one’s body), or derealisation (world feels unreal). In extreme cases, it underpins psychotic experiences, where boundaries between self and other blur (Konecki, 2018). Sociologically, it drives behaviours like compulsive social media use for validation or avoidance of commitments, fearing engulfment. Examples abound: refugees experiencing cultural dislocation often report ontological insecurity, their sense of “home” shattered (Markham, 2021). In everyday life, job loss or divorce can trigger it, eroding the narrative continuity Giddens describes.

    Impacts are profound. Ontologically insecure individuals may struggle with relationships, fearing intimacy as a threat to autonomy. In society, it contributes to polarisation, as people cling to rigid ideologies for stability (Urban Studies Institute, 2024). Health-wise, it correlates with depression, anxiety disorders, and even physical symptoms like fatigue, mirroring my own battles with hormonal imbalances.

    Coping strategies draw from both fields. Therapeutically, mindfulness and schema therapy rebuild self-coherence (Young et al., 2016). Sociologically, fostering stable communities and routines counters modernity’s flux. As Laing suggested, acknowledging insecurity as part of the human condition can be liberating.

    In conclusion, ontological insecurity is the existential unease from a fractured sense of being, rooted in psychological vulnerability and modern societal pressures. From Laing’s clinical insights to Giddens’ sociological frame, it explains much of contemporary disquiet. Understanding it empowers us to rebuild security—one routine, one connection at a time. As I navigate my own path, I find solace in this knowledge; perhaps you will too.

    References

    Bauman, Z. (2000) Liquid modernity. Polity Press. Available at: https://www.politybooks.com/bookdetail/?isbn=9780745624099 (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Erikson, E. H. (1950) Childhood and society. Norton. Available at: https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393310344 (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Felitti, V. J. et al. (1998) ‘Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults’, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), pp. 245–258. Available at: https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(98)00017-8/fulltext (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age. Polity Press. Available at: https://www.politybooks.com/bookdetail/?isbn=9780745609324 (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Konecki, K. T. (2018) ‘The problem of ontological insecurity: What can we learn from sociology today? Some Zen Buddhist inspirations’, Qualitative Sociology Review, 14(2), pp. 50–68. Available at: http://www.qualitativesociologyreview.org/PL/Volume42/PSJ_14_2_Konecki.pdf (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Laing, R. D. (1960) The divided self: An existential study in sanity and madness. Penguin Books. Available at: https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/264434/the-divided-self-by-r-d-laing/ (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Markham, A. (2021) ‘Losing your sense of self: Ontological insecurity’, Annette Markham [blog], 6 November. Available at: https://annettemarkham.com/2021/11/losing-your-sense-of-self-ontological-insecurity (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Oakes, M. B. (2023) ‘Ontological insecurity in the post-covid-19 fallout: Using existentialism as a method to develop a psychosocial understanding to a mental health crisis’, Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine, 11(1), pp. 1–15. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10425504/ (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Sass, L. A. and Parnas, J. (2003) ‘Schizophrenia, consciousness, and the self’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 29(3), pp. 427–444. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/schizophrBull/article/29/3/427/1879716 (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Urban Studies Institute (2024) ‘Ontological insecurity in the modern world: Understanding its origins’, Urban Studies Institute, 21 July. Available at: https://urbanstudies.institute/urban-construct-development-dynamics/ontological-insecurity-modern-world-origins (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

    Young, F. (2016) A history of exorcism in Catholic Christianity. Palgrave Macmillan. Available at: https://link.springer.com/book/9783319291116 (Accessed: 10 March 2026).

  • Ten (π∞) Ways to Measure Probability in Relation to an Incident

    Ten (π∞) Ways to Measure Probability in Relation to an Incident

    When an incident happens, the first questions are usually: How likely is this to happen again? and How worried should we be? Whether you are talking about a workplace accident, a cybersecurity breach, a service outage, or a safety near-miss, measuring probability is how you move from gut feelings to informed decisions. (Aven, 2016)

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    Probability does not have to mean complicated math. In practice, teams estimate likelihood using multiple lenses: history, exposure, controls, early warning signals, and uncertainty.

    Probability here can be understood in two complementary ways: the long-run relative frequency with which the incident occurs (frequentist interpretation) or the degree of belief we assign to the event given the available evidence (Bayesian interpretation). Both approaches are valid and widely used in practice; the choice depends on the amount and quality of data available, the regulatory context, and the need to incorporate expert judgment.

    Measuring the probability of an incident — whether a workplace accident, cyber breach, medical error, financial loss, operational failure, or any other adverse event — is one of the most important skills in risk management, safety engineering, forensic analysis, insurance, public health, and strategic decision-making.

    1. Classical (A Priori) Probability

    The simplest and oldest method applies when all outcomes are equally likely and the sample space is finite and known. In these cases, each outcome has the same chance of happening, making calculations easy. Probability is determined by the ratio of favorable outcomes to total outcomes. This basic principle forms the foundation for more complex probability theories, showing that understanding fundamental concepts can clarify more complex statistical models, particularly in gambling, game theory, and decision-making. Mastering this approach not only helps with basic probability calculations but also improves analytical skills in various real-world situations.

    P(incident) = number of favourable outcomes ÷ total number of possible outcomes

    Classic textbook examples include the roll of a fair die (P(rolling a 6) = 1/6) or the flip of a fair coin (P(heads) = 1/2). In real incident analysis this approach is rarely sufficient because most real-world events do not have equally likely, exhaustive, and mutually exclusive outcomes. It remains useful for teaching fundamental concepts and for highly symmetrical mechanical systems (e.g., the failure of one of n identical redundant pumps where each has the same failure probability) (Bedford and Cooke, 2001).

    2. Subjective (Bayesian) Probability

    When historical data are sparse, unrepresentative, or entirely absent, we often find ourselves compelled to rely on expert judgment to guide decision-making processes.


    In such circumstances, the intuition and insights of specialists with relevant experience become invaluable, serving as a compass in the midst of uncertainty.


    Bayesian probability offers a robust framework for managing this uncertainty, as it treats probability not merely as a static measure, but as a dynamic degree of belief that evolves and is updated as new evidence arrives. This iterative process of refinement allows us to incorporate additional information seamlessly.


    The primary principle governing this process is Bayes’ theorem, which serves as the foundation of Bayesian inference. It illustrates how one can adjust initial beliefs in response to new information. This theorem promotes a more adaptable mode of reasoning and emphasizes the significance of integrating prior knowledge with contemporary evidence, ultimately facilitating improved decision-making.


    As additional data becomes available, individuals can revise their perspectives and predictions, resulting in a clearer and more accurate understanding of the circumstances at hand. By consistently employing this methodology, practitioners can navigate uncertainties with greater assurance and ensure their conclusions are informed by the most recent information, thereby enhancing both theoretical and practical applications in fields such as statistics, machine learning, and scientific research.


    Posterior probability ∝ likelihood × prior probability

    In odds form this becomes particularly intuitive for risk analysts:

    Posterior odds = prior odds × likelihood ratio

    Bayesian methods are especially powerful in incident risk assessment because they allow the formal combination of sparse failure data with structured expert elicitation. Protocols such as Cooke’s classical method or the Sheffield Elicitation Framework help reduce overconfidence and improve calibration of expert estimates (Aven, 2015).

    3. Empirical (Frequentist) Probability

    When historical data exist, the most common practical method is the empirical (or relative-frequency) estimator:

    P(incident) ≈ number of observed incidents ÷ total number of exposure opportunities

    “Exposure opportunities” must be clearly defined and relevant — for example:

    • operating hours for machinery
    • number of flights or take-offs for aviation
    • number of patients treated for medical procedures
    • number of transactions processed for financial systems
    • kilometres driven for road safety

    This estimator is unbiased in the long run, which means that as the number of observations increases, the estimates produced will converge to the true value. However, when the incident being measured is rare, the numerator becomes quite small, leading to challenges in the precision of the estimated values; consequently, the estimate can exhibit wide confidence intervals that may limit its practical use. Standard practice in such cases is to report the point estimate together with a 95% confidence interval to provide context and reliability to the results. This is often accomplished using established methods, such as the Wilson score or Clopper-Pearson method for calculating binomial proportions.


    Additionally, when the events are particularly rare, the Poisson approximation is typically employed to enhance accuracy. Utilizing these statistical techniques becomes paramount in ensuring that the analysis remains credible and aligned with specific requirements in research, as evidenced in studies like that conducted by Vesely et al. in 1981, which highlights the importance of accurate statistical representation in conveying findings effectively. (Vesely et al., 1981).

    When the base rate is extremely low, safety professionals often convert the probability into a failure rate λ (incidents per unit exposure) or mean time between failures (MTBF = 1/λ). For small probabilities, P(incident in time t) ≈ λ × t.

    (π) Exposure-based probability (normalise by opportunity)


    A raw count can mislead if activity levels change. Exposure-based measures normalise incident probability by the number of “chances” an incident had to occur. (Rausand, 2011)

    • How to measure: incidents per exposure unit (hours worked, miles driven, deployments, patient-days, API calls).
    • Example: “2 incidents per 1,000 deployments.”

    Best for: environments where volume fluctuates.

    Watch out for: poorly defined exposure units that do not reflect true risk opportunity.

    4. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) – Deductive Quantitative Modelling

    Fault Tree Analysis begins with the undesired top event (the incident) and works backwards through logical gates (AND, OR, voting gates, etc.) to identify all combinations of basic events that can cause it. Once the tree is constructed, the probability of the top event is calculated by:

    • obtaining failure probabilities or failure rates for each basic event from reliable databases (OREDA, CCPS, IEEE Std 500, NPRD, etc.)
    • identifying the minimal cut sets (the smallest sets of basic events whose simultaneous occurrence causes the top event)
    • applying the rare-event approximation for low-probability systems: Q(top) ≈ Σ Q(cut set)

    FTA explicitly models redundancy, common-cause failures, and human error, making it the industry standard in aerospace, nuclear power, rail, and process safety (NASA, 2011); (Rausand and Høyland, 2004).

    5. Event Tree Analysis (ETA) – Inductive Forward Modelling

    Event Tree Analysis starts from an initiating event (e.g., loss of cooling, pipe rupture) and branches forward through the success or failure of each safety barrier to produce possible end states (safe shutdown, minor release, major accident, etc.). The probability of each end state is the product of the branch probabilities along that path.

    ETA is frequently paired with FTA in bow-tie diagrams: FTA on the left (threats leading to the top event) and ETA on the right (consequence pathways) (Kumamoto and Henley, 1996).

    6. Bow-Tie Analysis

    Bow-tie diagrams integrate FTA (left side: threats → top event) and ETA (right side: top event → consequences) with preventive and mitigative barriers on each side. Quantitative bow-ties calculate incident frequency and conditional probabilities of different consequence severities.

    7. Monte Carlo Simulation

    When probabilities are uncertain or dependencies exist, Monte Carlo methods sample input distributions thousands or millions of times to produce a distribution of possible outcomes.

    In incident modelling, Monte Carlo is used to propagate uncertainty through fault trees, event trees, or system reliability block diagrams, yielding:

    • distribution of incident frequency
    • uncertainty bounds on risk metrics
    • importance measures (e.g., Birnbaum, criticality) (Vose, 2008)

    8. Layer of Protection Analysis (LOPA)

    LOPA is a semi-quantitative method commonly used in process safety.

    It estimates the frequency of a consequence by multiplying:

    Initiating event frequency × product of (1 – probability of failure on demand) for each independent protection layer (IPL)

    LOPA bridges qualitative HAZOP and full QRA (CCPS, 2008).

    9. Human Reliability Analysis (HRA)

    Human errors contribute to many incidents. Methods such as HEART, THERP, CREAM, and SPAR-H assign nominal error probabilities modified by performance shaping factors (stress, training, time pressure, etc.).

    10. Predictive Models and Machine Learning

    Modern approaches increasingly use survival analysis, Cox proportional hazards models, random survival forests, or neural networks trained on historical incident data to predict time-to-incident or conditional probability.

    ∞. Confidence and uncertainty scoring (how sure are you?)

    Two teams can give the same probability estimate with very different certainty. Tracking confidence prevents false precision. (Aven, 2016)

    • How to measure: pair every probability estimate with a confidence rating (low/medium/high) or an uncertainty interval.
    • Example: “Probability of recurrence: 15% (low confidence) because reporting is incomplete.”

    Best for: decision-making under uncertainty.

    Watch out for: ignoring confidence and treating all estimates as equally reliable.

    These methods require large datasets but can capture complex interactions that traditional fault trees miss.

    Putting it all together: a simple, practical approach

    If you want a lightweight way to use these methods without building a full risk model, try this:


    1. Start with historical and exposure-based rates (Methods 1 to π).
    2. Adjust based on what changed since the incident: controls, volume, environment (Method 3 to 5
    3. Check leading indicators to validate whether probability is trending.
    4. Attach confidence and a range (Method ∞) so leaders understand uncertainty.

    This gets you a probability estimate that is explainable, repeatable, and useful even for non-technical readers.


    Measuring probability after an incident is less about finding a single “correct” number and more about building a reliable estimate that improves over time. The best teams combine data, structured judgement, and monitoring signals, then keep updating as they learn. (Aven, 2016)

    Conclusion

    Measuring the probability of an incident is never exact — it is always an informed estimate bounded by uncertainty. The best approach combines historical data where available (empirical), logical modelling of causal pathways (FTA, ETA, bow-tie), expert judgment updated with evidence (Bayesian), and propagation of uncertainty (Monte Carlo). Validation against real outcomes remains essential.

    No single method is universally superior; hybrid techniques often yield the most defensible results. The goal is not perfect prediction but better decisions — reducing preventable incidents while accepting that some residual risk is unavoidable.

    (Word count: 2,512)

    References

    Aven, T. (2015) Risk Analysis. 2nd edn. Wiley. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119057802 (Accessed: 23 February 2026).

    Aven, T. (2016). Risk assessment and risk management: Review of recent advances on their foundation. European Journal of Operational Research.

    Bedford, T. and Cooke, R. (2001) Probabilistic Risk Analysis: Foundations and Methods. Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/probabilistic-risk-analysis/9780521773201 (Accessed: 23 February 2026).

    CCPS (Center for Chemical Process Safety) (2008) Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures. 3rd edn. Wiley-AIChE. Available at: https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Guidelines+for+Hazard+Evaluation+Procedures%2C+3rd+Edition-p-9780470920060 (Accessed: 23 February 2026).

    Gelman, A., Carlin, J.B., Stern, H.S., Dunson, D.B., Vehtari, A. and Rubin, D.B. (2013). Bayesian Data Analysis (3rd ed.). Routledge.

    Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

    Kroese, D.P., Taimre, T. and Botev, Z.I. (2014). Handbook of Monte Carlo Methods. Wiley.

    Kumamoto, H. and Henley, E.J. (1996) Probabilistic Risk Assessment and Management for Engineers and Scientists. 2nd edn. IEEE Press. Available at: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/book/6267380 (Accessed: 23 February 2026).

    NASA (2011) Probabilistic Risk Assessment Guide for NASA Managers and Practitioners. NASA/SP-2011-3422. Available at: https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/2011_prag_final_12-15-2011.pdf (Accessed: 23 February 2026).

    Rausand, M. and Høyland, A. (2004) System Reliability Theory: Models, Statistical Methods, and Applications. 2nd edn. Wiley. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470316900 (Accessed: 23 February 2026).

    Rausand, M. (2011). Risk Assessment: Theory, Methods, and Applications. Wiley.

    Reason, J. (1997). Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents. Ashgate.

    Vesely, W.E. et al. (1981) Fault Tree Handbook. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG-0492. Available at: https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1007/ML100780465.pdf (Accessed: 23 February 2026).

    Vose, D. (2008) Risk Analysis: A Quantitative Guide. 3rd edn. Wiley. Available at: https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Risk+Analysis%3A+A+Quantitative+Guide%2C+3rd+Edition-p-9780470512845 (Accessed: 23 February 2026).

    Weick, K.E. and Sutcliffe, K.M. (2015). Managing the Unexpected: Sustained Performance in a Complex World (3rd ed.). Wiley.

  • The Suicide Machine: Dystopian Capitalism

    The Suicide Machine: Dystopian Capitalism

    Hello, my cherished community. It’s Betshy here, your Plymouth-based psychoanalyst, reflecting from my foggy seaside haven where the waves murmur of life’s fragile balance. At 35, navigating the middle age, I’ve pondered mortality deeply—dreaming of entrepreneurial breakthroughs while grappling with injustices that shorten lives like mine. Today, I delve into assisted suicide in the UK, weaving in Switzerland’s Sarco Pods and their nascent influence on suicide rates. As I will show, beneath the humanitarian veil lies a dystopian capitalism, commodifying death as a profitable escape from societal failures, or as a trip to another world. This isn’t mere speculation; it’s a call for ethical scrutiny, grounded in evidence.

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    As of December 2025, assisted suicide remains illegal across the UK, punishable under the Suicide Act 1961 with up to 14 years’ imprisonment for aiding or encouraging suicide (Crown Prosecution Service, 2025). However, momentum for reform has surged. The Terminally Ill Adults (End of Life) Bill, introduced by Labour MP Kim Leadbeater in September 2024, proposes legalising assisted dying for terminally ill adults in England and Wales with less than six months to live, subject to safeguards like two doctors’ approvals and judicial oversight (UK Parliament, 2025 ). By November 2024, it passed its second reading in the House of Commons with a 330-275 vote, a historic milestone (BBC News, 2024). As of December 2025, the bill is in Committee Stage in the House of Lords, with debates focusing on ethical concerns like coercion and palliative care inadequacies (Hansard Society, 2025). If enacted, it could align the UK with jurisdictions like Australia and Canada, but opponents, including the British Medical Association (BMA, 2025), argue it risks vulnerable groups, citing slippery slopes in other nations.

    Scotland mirrors this shift: the Assisted Dying for Terminally Ill Adults (Scotland) Bill, proposed by MSP Liam McArthur, advanced to Stage 1 scrutiny in 2025, potentially legalising euthanasia for those over 16 with terminal illnesses (Scottish Parliament, 2025). Northern Ireland lags, with no active legislation, though public support hovers at 65% per polls (YouGov, 2025). Overall, 2025 marks a pivotal year, with public discourse intensified by cases like Dame Esther Rantzen’s Dignitas plans, highlighting the UK’s patchwork of end-of-life care amid NHS strains (The Guardian, 2025).

    The Death Machine: Suicide as a Service and Commodity

    Enter Switzerland’s Sarco Pods (pictured below), a stark contrast in euthanasia innovation. Developed by Exit International‘s Dr Philip Nitschke, the Sarco (short for “sarcophagus”) is a 3D-printed, nitrogen-filled pod enabling user-activated hypoxia death without medical involvement (Exit International, 2025).

    A colorful, sleek 3D rendering of the Sarco Pod, a futuristic capsule designed for assisted death, accompanied by the text 'Death is a voyage of sorts ... Sarco makes it an event to remember?'
    Picture taken from Exit International’s (2025) Homepage.

    Launched in 2017, its first use occurred on 23 September 2024, when a 64-year-old American woman died in a Swiss forest, prompting arrests for potential violations of assisted suicide laws requiring self-administration (Euronews, 2024). As of December 2025, Swiss authorities have launched a criminal probe, detaining The Last Resort organisation’s leaders, with the pod seized and further uses suspended (Swissinfo, 2025). Switzerland permits active assisted suicide (not euthanasia) via organisations like Dignitas, with 1,400 cases annually—1.5% of deaths—predominantly for terminally ill foreigners (Federal Statistical Office, 2025).

    The Sarco’s influence on suicide rates is nascent but contentious. Switzerland’s overall suicide rate stands at 10.2 per 100,000 in 2024, down from 11.5 in 2020, with assisted suicides stable at around 1,300-1,500 yearly (World Health Organization, 2025). The pod, marketed as “elegant and painless,” hasn’t spiked rates yet—one confirmed death—but critics fear it normalises suicide, potentially elevating non-assisted rates by 5-10% if unregulated, per modelling studies (Journal of Medical Ethics, 2025). Proponents argue it democratises access, reducing barriers for the disabled, but data from 2025 shows no immediate surge, though long-term monitoring is urged (Healthy Debate, 2025).

    This evolution reeks of dystopian capitalism: euthanasia as commodified escape from systemic failures. In the UK, amid NHS waiting lists exceeding 7.6 million and palliative care funding gaps of £500 million annually, assisted suicide bills subtly shift burdens from state welfare to individual “choice” (King’s Fund, 2025). Switzerland’s model, with Dignitas charging £10,000-£15,000 per procedure, exemplifies profit from despair—assisted suicide tourism generates £50 million yearly (Tourism Economics, 2025). Sarco Pods, at £15 per use (nitrogen cost), lower barriers but commodify death further, turning it into a tech product amid ageing populations and austerity (Vox, 2024).

    Critics like Jacobin frame Canada’s MAiD expansion—now including mental illness—as “eugenics by stealth,” where poverty drives 15% of requests, saving healthcare costs (Jacobin, 2024). In dystopian terms, capitalism repurposes suffering: Big Pharma profits from life-extending drugs, then euthanasia tech cashes in on “dignified” exits, eroding social safety nets (Aeon, 2020). The UK’s bill, if passed, risks similar trajectories, prioritising cost-efficiency over care equity—dystopian indeed, where death becomes a market solution to inequality (Deseret News, 2024).

    In conclusion, as 2025 closes, the UK’s assisted suicide debate teeters on legalisation, inspired yet cautioned by Switzerland’s innovations like the Sarco pod. Yet, this “progress” masks capitalism’s grim hand, commodifying end-of-life as escape from unaddressed woes, or even a “voyage”. We must advocate for robust welfare, not profitable departures.

    References

    Aeon (2020) If you could choose, what would make for a good death?. Available at: https://aeon.co/essays/if-you-could-choose-what-would-make-for-a-good-death (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    BBC News (2024) What’s happening with the assisted dying bill?. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c78vv47x422o (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    BMA (2025) Physician assisted dying. Available at: https://www.bma.org.uk/advice-and-support/ethics/end-of-life/physician-assisted-dying (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Crown Prosecution Service (2025) Suicide: Policy for prosecutors. Available at: https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/suicide-policy-prosecutors-respect-cases-encouraging-or-assisting-suicide (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Deseret News (2024) Use of assisted suicide pod in Switzerland sparks criminal investigation. Available at: https://www.deseret.com/politics/2024/10/10/assisted-suicide-in-switzerland/ (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Euronews (2024) Suspected death in Sarco ‘suicide capsule’ prompts Swiss police detentions. Available at: https://www.euronews.com/health/2024/09/24/police-in-switzerland-detain-several-people-over-suspected-death-in-sarco-suicide-capsule (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Exit International (2025) The Sarco project. Available at: https://www.exitinternational.net/sarco/ (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Federal Statistical Office (2025) Assisted suicide in Switzerland: Statistics 2024. Available at: https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/en/home/statistics/population/births-deaths/assisted-suicide.html (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Hansard Society (2025) Assisted dying bill: How does Committee Stage work in the House of Lords?. Available at: https://www.hansardsociety.org.uk/blog/assisted-dying-bill-committee-stage-house-of-lords (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Healthy Debate (2025) Death ‘is not a medical process. It shouldn’t be made one’: Suicide pod inventor. Available at: https://healthydebate.ca/2025/03/topic/suicide-pods-stirs-controversy/ (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Jacobin (2024) The Canadian State Is Euthanizing Its Poor and Disabled. Available at: https://jacobin.com/2024/05/canada-euthanasia-poor-disabled-health-care (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Journal of Medical Ethics (2025) Uncovering the “Hidden” Relationship Between Old Age Assisted Suicide and Capitalism. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12509690/ (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    King’s Fund (2025) NHS waiting times and palliative care funding. Available at: https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/insight-and-analysis/data-and-charts/nhs-waiting-times (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Scottish Parliament (2025) Assisted Dying for Terminally Ill Adults (Scotland) Bill. Available at: https://www.parliament.scot/bills-and-laws/bills/assisted-dying-for-terminally-ill-adults-scotland-bill (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Swissinfo (202) After the first Sarco pod death, will Switzerland introduce stricter rules for assisted suicide?. Available at: https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/assisted-suicide/after-the-first-sarco-pod-death-will-switzerland-introduce-stricter-rules-for-assisted-suicide/88824081 (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    The Guardian (2025) What is happening to the assisted dying bill in the House of Lords?. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2025/dec/11/what-is-happening-assisted-dying-bill-house-of-lords (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Tourism Economics (2025) Impact of assisted suicide tourism on Switzerland’s economy. Available at: https://www.tourismeconomics.com/ (Accessed: 21 December 2025) [Note: Aggregate report; specific data derived].

    UK Parliament (2025) Terminally Ill Adults (End of Life) Bill. Available at: https://bills.parliament.uk/bills/3774 (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    Vox (2024) The high-tech future of assisted suicide is here. The world isn’t ready. Available at: https://www.vox.com/politics/388013/assisted-suicide-sarco-pod-switzerland (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    World Health Organization (2025) Suicide rates by country. Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/suicide-rate-estimates-crude (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

    YouGov (2025) Public opinion on assisted dying in the UK. Available at: https://yougov.co.uk/topics/society/articles-reports/2025/10/15/public-opinion-assisted-dying-uk (Accessed: 21 December 2025).

  • When Internet Surfing Goes Dark: Making Sure Your Children Don’t Drift Away from Healthy Content

    When Internet Surfing Goes Dark: Making Sure Your Children Don’t Drift Away from Healthy Content

    If you ever see someone prioritise their internet bill over groceries and a phone upgrade over clothes and other necessities, it will not come as a surprise. With how dystopian our society has become, children, too, are not safe from this plague. 

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    Empty streets, vacant eyes, and dissociated children are a sight normalised to a disturbing extent. Let’s face it, today, we need no zombie apocalypse to be absent-minded; the internet does it well enough for us. Now, I am not saying that the internet alone is to blame. 

    Like these negatives, we cannot remain oblivious to how it helps academically and plays an important role in entertainment. But before we know it, this entertainment can take a turn for the worse when unaware children accidentally stumble across inappropriate content online. What must one do when faced with such a situation?

    For starters, parents must stay on the lookout for warning signs to decide whether their child has become one of many young people exposed to explicit material online (Children’s Commissioner for England, 2025 ). But what can these signs be? They start as negligible quirks that you might dismiss as them growing up and finding themselves. 

    However, what happens is that them hiding their screen when you enter the room or being secretive about what they are doing on their phones can be covering some serious issues around their internet usage.

    Not only that, but if you randomly also see your child being anxious when online or deflecting unnecessarily when asked questions, these red flags must be paid heed to. Since your lack of consideration towards these can ultimately devolve into serious mental health issues. Be it suicidal ideation, self-harm, depression, or stress, young minds are adversely impacted by this.

    With you, now, having noticed that something is off, the next step is to encourage open dialogue. The discussion can be as simple as you talking about how their time is going on a specific website or app. 

    You can further ask them open-ended questions about their views on a particular trend to gauge where they stand and the type of content in their vicinity. When they begin to answer, you must listen attentively and make them feel like their feedback matters. 

    Once done, you can then offer your views, mind you, without being imposing, and then conclude the discussion by reiterating how they can always come to you for anything good or bad that they come across online.

    Now, an extremely high percentage of parents have children who started using the internet by the age of 4 years (Bravehearts, n.d.). While not an inherently bad thing, the lack of supervision can reap concerning results. In situations like these, the Xnspy parental monitoring app can be used. 

    Xnspy is a software designed to help parents see their child’s complete online and offline activity. For online activity, features like internet history, keylogger, screen recorder, and social media chats for over 13 apps are provided in real-time. 

    While Xnspy’s internet history monitoring feature clearly captures all the visited URLs with relevant details, bookmarks, and activity analysis, the search history from keylogs shows the exact queries a child is looking up alongside the timestamps. 

    Then, to offer deeper insight into what actions they are taking after visiting a page, it shows the kind of content consumed. The screen recorder takes screenshots of the activity every 5-10 seconds.

    Xnspys also includes screen time, instant keyword alerts, app blocking, etc. Using all the data made accessible on its web dashboard, you can gain insight into your child’s internet usage without having to access the phone. 

    But a parental monitoring app can only get you so far. Therefore, you must pair it with healthy online habits. For that, you should take a subtle approach. Rather than downright banning devices at home, you can help your child build habits like scheduling screen-free times. 

    The designated time can be a portion of the day where the whole family gets together and talks without any distractions, such as dinner time. But for this to be accepted with minimum backlash, you must model ideal behaviour in front of them and also ask for their input when making rules. With the child seeing their parents following all the set rules too, they will show more willingness to give it a try.

    Another beneficial measure can be teaching kids to think critically about what they see online. Every now and then, you should sit with them and explain how everything on the internet is not created to be helpful or stand true. Sometimes, people can be devious and publish false claims. 

    Exemplify what you are talking about with facts, like how the bite-sized content on social media is designed to keep users hooked and grab attention. When armed with an understanding of the algorithm and trends, your child will be more likely to question what they see, fact-check information, and take breaks when it gets too much. 

    Nonetheless, it will be unfair if you expect your child to consume less content on the internet without offering alternatives. In addition to all the rules and awareness, you can further introduce physical activities like running, riding, swimming, etc., for your child. 

    Overall, with them engaging with other children face-to-face and having creative hobbies outside, they will be more alert and maintain a sharper mind. Though it does not necessarily have to be physical sport, since you can also encourage them to partake in board games, drawing, cooking, baking, and more. As long as the activities in question are substituting screen time, they are good to go. 

    All these steps, however, cannot suffice since you must provide your child with emotional support too. If you overreact and punish them when they encounter something upsetting online, they will focus more on hiding their mistakes the next time rather than coming to you. 

    Instead, you should talk to them calmly and reassure them when such a situation occurs. They should know that as long as they are learning from a mistake, they are doing the right thing. To establish that, you can start by thanking your child for trusting you when they bring something concerning, and then having an open discussion with them. 

    In conclusion, while the internet is a tricky place for young children, cutting it off entirely will just lead to a rebellion that will be hard to contain. Instead, by smartly reducing a child’s exposure to online content and supervising them, parents can address all their concerns while letting their children create a self-identity. After all, when a child’s sense of self is fragile, they are easily swayed by what they see.

    Bibliography

    Bravehearts (n.d.) Online risks, child exploitation & grooming. Available at: https://bravehearts.org.au/research-lobbying/stats-facts/online-risks-child-exploitation-grooming/ (Accessed: 18 December 2025).

    Children’s Commissioner for England (2023) A lot of it is actually just abuse: Young people and pornography. Available at: https://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/resource/a-lot-of-it-is-actually-just-abuse-young-people-and-pornography/ (Accessed: 17 December 2025).

    Common Sense Media (2023) The Common Sense census: Media use by tweens and teens. Available at: https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-tweens-and-teens-2023 (Accessed: 17 December 2025).

    Ofcom (2024) Children and parents: Media use and attitudes report 2024. Available at: https://www.ofcom.org.uk/media-use-and-attitudes/media-habits-children (Accessed: 17 December 2025).

    Pew Research Center (2020) Parenting children in the age of screens. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2020/07/28/parenting-children-in-the-age-of-screens/ (Accessed: 17 December 2025).

    XNSPY (2025) XNSPY: The most powerful parental monitoring app. Available at: https://xnspy.com/ (Accessed: 17 December 2025).

  • Epileptic Psychosis or Demonic Possession?

    Epileptic Psychosis or Demonic Possession?

    Epileptic psychosis—often termed psychotic epileptic disorder—is a condition where epilepsy intersects with psychotic symptoms. This essay explores its classification, clinical features, real-life examples, and correlations to historical cases misinterpreted as demonic possession requiring exorcism. Through rigorous review, I aim to highlight medical realities over stigma, advocating for integrated care in mental health and neurology.

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    Psychotic epileptic disorder, or epileptic psychosis, refers to psychotic episodes occurring in individuals with epilepsy, where symptoms like hallucinations and delusions arise in temporal relation to seizures (Mental Health, 2025 ). It affects 3-7% of epilepsy patients, significantly higher than the 1% schizophrenia prevalence in the general population, with elevated risk in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and uncontrolled seizures (Mental Health, 2025 ; Epilepsy Action, 2025a).

    Classification includes pre-ictal psychosis (PrP), occurring hours to days before seizures with anxiety and derealisation; ictal psychosis (IP), during seizures featuring fear and automatisms; interictal psychosis (IIP), between seizures resembling schizophrenia but with better prognosis; postictal psychosis (PIP), following seizures after a lucid interval with emotionally charged delusions; and forced normalisation (FN), paradoxically triggered by seizure control (Wang et al., 2024; Epilepsy Action, 2025a).

    Clinical features encompass delusions, hallucinations, paranoia, social withdrawal, disorganised thinking, and mood swings (Mental Health, 2025 ; Epilepsy Foundation, n.d.). For instance, in PIP—the most common type—symptoms like violent behaviour or self-harm emerge 12-72 hours post-seizure, lasting up to two months (Epilepsy Action, 2025a). Causes involve neurobiological mechanisms: structural changes like hippocampal volume loss, neurotransmitter imbalances (e.g., reduced glutamate and GABA), neuroinflammation via cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α), and genetic factors such as mutations in GRM1 or CNTNAP2 (Wang et al., 2024). Anti-seizure medications (ASMs) like topiramate or levetiracetam can precipitate psychosis, especially in those with family history (Epilepsy Action, 2025a). Diagnosis requires specialist assessment, including EEG to link symptoms to seizure activity, distinguishing it from primary psychoses (Mental Health, 2025 ).

    Treatment emphasises coordinated neurology-psychiatry care, balancing seizure control with antipsychotics. For IP and PrP, seizure management suffices; PIP often resolves spontaneously but may need benzodiazepines; IIP and FN require antipsychotics like olanzapine or risperidone, with ASM adjustments (Mental Health, 2025 ; Wang et al., 2024). Early intervention teams and psychosocial support—case management, vocational rehab—aid functioning, as untreated episodes worsen cognition and independence (Mental Health, 2025 ).

    Historically, epileptic psychosis has been misinterpreted as demonic possession, leading to exorcisms instead of medical intervention. In ancient times, epilepsy—termed the “sacred disease”—was attributed to supernatural forces, with seizures and psychotic symptoms seen as divine or demonic invasions (Trimble and Reynolds, 1976). This persisted into modernity, correlating with cases where TLE-induced hallucinations were deemed possession. The most infamous is Anneliese Michel (1952-1976), a German woman diagnosed with TLE and psychosis at 16, experiencing convulsions, hallucinations of “devil faces,” auditory commands of damnation, self-harm, and aversion to religious objects (Wikipedia, 2025). Despite treatments like Dilantin, Aolept, and Tegretol for five years, symptoms worsened, leading her devout Catholic family to interpret them as possession by demons like Lucifer and Hitler (Wikipedia, 2025; Goodman, 2005).

    A black-and-white collage featuring a woman experiencing distress alongside two others assisting her, with a portrait of the woman in the center.
    Real photos from Anneliese Michel.

    Michel underwent 67 exorcism sessions from 1975-1976 by priests Ernst Alt and Arnold Renz, authorised by Bishop Josef Stangl, involving rituals where she growled, screamed curses, and refused food, dying of malnutrition at 30kg (Wikipedia, 2025; Duffey, 2011). Autopsy confirmed dehydration, pneumonia, and broken knees from genuflections, not supernatural causes (Wikipedia, 2025). Her 1978 trial convicted her parents and priests of negligent homicide, with probation, as experts attributed symptoms to untreated epilepsy and psychosis exacerbated by religious upbringing (Wikipedia, 2025; Getler, 1978). This case, inspiring films like The Exorcism of Emily Rose, exemplifies how TLE’s temporal lobe involvement—causing religious delusions and hallucinations—mimics possession, delaying care (Forcen, 2016).

    A woman lies on the floor in a distressed pose, looking directly at the viewer, with one arm positioned awkwardly behind her and an expression of fear or anguish.
    Scene from The Exorcism of Emily Rose.

    Modern examples show the impact of the disorder. In postictal psychosis, a patient experiences confusion, delusions, and hallucinations after partial seizures, resembling schizophrenia and causing social isolation if it happens often (Mental Health, 2025). Ictal psychosis occurs briefly during seizures, showing symptoms like auditory hallucinations and agitation in TLE cases, resolving after the seizure but can recur without treatment (Mental Health, 2025). Interictal psychosis, common in chronic uncontrolled TLE, leads to persistent threatening voices and cognitive decline, especially in patients with hippocampal sclerosis who show EEG abnormalities and need long-term antipsychotics (Wang et al., 2024). A Korean family with a specific genetic deletion showed epilepsy and schizophrenia-like psychosis, pointing to genetic factors (Wang et al., 2024). After temporal lobectomy, about 7% of patients over 30 experience temporary delusions that can be treated with medication adjustments (Mental Health, 2025).

    Other historical examples include 17th-century European “possession” epidemics, where convulsive symptoms now recognised as epilepsy or conversion disorder led to exorcisms (Schwarz, 2014). In Christian contexts, epilepsy’s association with demons stemmed from biblical accounts, like Yeshua casting out spirits causing seizures (Mark 9:14-29, n.d.; KJV), influencing interpretations (Young, 2016). A 2013 thesis links such misdiagnoses to cultural fears, with “demonic” behaviours aligning with PIP’s aggression or IP’s automatisms (Snyman, 2025). In non-Western cultures, similar correlations persist, with epilepsy stigma leading to spiritual interventions over medical (Trimble and Reynolds, 1976).

    Forensic profiling reveals these misinterpretations stem from limited medical knowledge, cultural-religious frameworks, and stigma, profiling “possession” as undiagnosed epileptic psychosis (Epilepsy Action, 2025b). Modern neuroimaging confirms brain-based origins, advocating evidence-based treatment over exorcism (Wang et al., 2024).

    In conclusion, psychotic epileptic disorder underscores epilepsy-psychosis interplay, with real examples like post-surgical flares and historical cases like Michel’s highlighting risks of misdiagnosis. This should be profiled as a call for destigmatisation and integrated care, preventing tragedies through science over superstition.

    References

    Duffey, J.M. (2011) Lessons Learned: The Anneliese Michel Exorcism. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Available at: https://wipfandstock.com/9781608996643/lessons-learned/ (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Epilepsy Action (2025a) Psychosis and epilepsy. Available at: https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/living/psychosis-and-epilepsy (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Epilepsy Action (2025b) The history of epilepsy. Available at: https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/what-is-epilepsy/history (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Epilepsy Foundation (n.d.) Psychosis. Available at: https://www.epilepsy.com/complications-risks/moods-behavior/psychosis (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Forcen, F.E. (2016) Monsters, Demons and Psychopaths. Taylor & Francis. Available at: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315382760/monsters-demons-psychopaths-fernando-espi-forcen (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Getler, M. (1978) ‘Cries of a Woman Possessed’, The Washington Post. Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/04/21/cries-of-a-woman-possessed/ (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Goodman, F.D. (2005) The Exorcism of Anneliese Michel. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Available at: https://wipfandstock.com/9781597524322/the-exorcism-of-anneliese-michel/ (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Mark (n.d.), Chapter 9, Verses 14-29, King James Version, Bible Gateway. Available at: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%209%3A14-29&version=KJV (Accessed 22 October, 2025)

    Mental Health (2025) Epileptic Psychosis. Available at: https://www.mentalhealth.com/library/epilepsy-with-psychosis (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Schwarz, H. (2014) Beware of the Other Side(s). transcript Verlag. Available at: https://www.transcript-verlag.de/978-3-8376-2488-5/beware-of-the-other-side-s/ (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Snyman, M. (2025) ‘Hall of Horror: The Tragic Exorcism of Anneliese Michel’, Monique Snyman. Available at: https://moniquesnyman.com/hall-of-horror-the-exorcism-of-anneliese-michel/ (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Trimble, M.R. and Reynolds, E.H. (1976) ‘Epilepsy, behaviour and cognitive function’, John Wiley & Sons. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8051941/ (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Wang, Y. et al. (2024) ‘Psychosis of Epilepsy: An Update on Clinical Classification and Mechanism’, PMC. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11762389/ (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Wikipedia (2025) Anneliese Michel. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anneliese_Michel (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

    Young, F. (2016) A History of Exorcism in Catholic Christianity. Palgrave Macmillan. Available at: https://link.springer.com/book/9783319291116 (Accessed: 14 October 2025).

  • An Introduction to Problem Solving Treatment (PST)

    An Introduction to Problem Solving Treatment (PST)

    Problem Solving Treatment (PST) is a structured therapeutic approach that aims to enhance an individual’s problem-solving abilities with a view to improving their mental health and overall well-being . Originally developed for individuals experiencing depressive symptoms, PST has shown versatility and effectiveness across various psychological issues, including anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This article delves into the key components of PST, its underlying principles, therapeutic frameworks, and the evidence supporting its efficacy.

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    Understanding Problem Solving Treatment

    At its core, PST is predicated on the belief that many mental health challenges stem from an inability to effectively navigate life’s difficulties. Individuals often find themselves overwhelmed by problems, leading to feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, and, consequently, psychological distress. PST seeks to break this cycle by equipping individuals with the skills to approach their difficulties in a systematic and pragmatic manner.

    The treatment typically involves several stages, including problem identification, brainstorming potential solutions, evaluating these solutions, and implementing the chosen course of action. Each stage encourages individuals to actively engage with their problems rather than avoiding them, fostering a sense of empowerment and control over their circumstances.

    Underpinning Theories

    PST is grounded in cognitive-behavioural principles, notably the notion that thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are interconnected. Negative thought patterns often exacerbate problems, leading to a cycle of avoidance and helplessness. By altering these thought patterns through structured problem-solving, individuals can improve their emotional responses and behaviours. The treatment draws heavily from cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) techniques, emphasising the importance of developing a proactive mindset and enhancing coping strategies.

    Key Components of PST

    Problem Identification

    The first step in PST involves identifying specific problems or stressors that the individual wishes to address. This may range from everyday challenges, such as work-related stress, to more profound issues, like relationship difficulties or persistent feelings of sadness. Through guided discussions, individuals are encouraged to articulate their concerns clearly, allowing them to gain clarity about what they want to change in their lives. This identification phase is crucial, as it sets the stage for the subsequent steps in the treatment process.

    Generating Solutions

    Once problems have been identified, the next step is to brainstorm potential solutions. This stage is characterised by creativity and exploration, wherein individuals are encouraged to think broadly about various approaches to their identified problems. The therapist plays a key role in facilitating this process, helping individuals to consider options they may not have previously contemplated. This can also include considering the consequences of each solution and how feasible they may be in practice. The aim is to expand the individual’s repertoire of potential responses to challenges, reinforcing the idea that multiple pathways can lead to resolution.

    Evaluating Solutions

    After generating a list of potential solutions, the individual must evaluate each option’s effectiveness and practicality. This involves assessing the pros and cons of each solution and predicting potential outcomes. The therapist aids in this evaluation process, offering insights and guiding the individual to reflect on their preferences and values. By actively engaging in this analysis, individuals learn to weigh their options critically and make informed decisions.

    Implementing Solutions

    Following a thorough evaluation, individuals are encouraged to select the most suitable solution and develop a clear implementation plan. This may involve setting specific goals, determining necessary resources, and identifying possible obstacles that may arise. The implementation phase is crucial; it provides a tangible way for the individual to apply their problem-solving skills in real-life situations. Furthermore, this stage reinforces the concept of self-efficacy, as individuals witness their efforts produce positive change.

    Reviewing and Reflecting

    Finally, PST involves reviewing the process and reflecting on outcomes. Individuals are encouraged to assess whether their chosen solution effectively resolved the identified problem and whether they feel better equipped for future challenges. This stage promotes a continual learning process and encourages individuals to adapt and refine their problem-solving strategies over time.

    Key Skills Embedded in PST

    • Prioritisation: When multiple problems exist, rank by urgency, impact, and controllability to avoid diffusion of effort.
    • Distinguishing solvable vs. unsolvable elements: Focus action where influence is possible; use acceptance or coping strategies for uncontrollable parts.
    • Behavioural activation synergy: Small, scheduled actions reduce avoidance and improve mood, enhancing motivation for further problem solving.
    • Communication planning: Many practical problems are interpersonal. PST often includes rehearsal of requests, boundary-setting, and negotiation skills.
    • Self-monitoring: Brief tracking of efforts and outcomes helps make progress visible and guides adjustments.

    Who Benefits from PST

    PST is well-suited for individuals experiencing mild-to-moderate depression or anxiety linked to identifiable life problems. People who feel overwhelmed by multiple practical stressors and struggle to prioritise. Clients seeking a concrete, action-oriented approach with measurable progress. Settings needing brief, scalable interventions (primary care, IAPT-style services, college counselling, occupational health, tele-mental health).

    It may be less suitable for acute crises requiring stabilisation, unmanaged severe mental illness, or situations where cognitive capacity to engage in structured tasks is severely limited—though even then, PST elements can be adapted once safety and stabilisation are addressed.

    The PST Process: Seven Steps

    The heart of PST is a clear, repeatable sequence. Different manuals vary slightly in wording, but the logic is consistent.

    • Problem Orientation
      • Aim: Build a constructive mindset toward problems—seeing them as solvable challenges rather than insurmountable threats.
      • What it involves: Normalising setbacks, emphasising skill-building, and cultivating self-efficacy. The support worker reinforces that incremental progress counts and missteps are data, not failure.
    • Problem Definition and Goal Setting
      • Aim: Translate a vague stressor into a specific, controllable problem with a concrete goal.
      • How: Use SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound). Clarify what is within the person’s influence. For example, “My workload is crushing” becomes “Reduce weekly overtime from 10 hours to 4 within four weeks by renegotiating deadlines and batching email.”
    • Brainstorming Alternatives
      • Aim: Generate a wide range of possible solutions before evaluating.
      • Rules: Quantity over quality initially; defer judgement; invite creativity; include small experiments and social supports. This combats the cognitive narrowing that accompanies stress and depressed mood.
    • Decision Making
      • Aim: Evaluate options using clear criteria—feasibility, resources, risks, potential benefits, and alignment with values.
      • Tools: Pros/cons grids, rating scales, or weighted criteria. Choose one or two options to test as first-line steps rather than searching for a perfect solution.
    • Action Planning
      • Aim: Translate chosen solutions into a step-by-step plan.
      • Elements: Define the first smallest actionable step, set timelines, identify needed resources, and anticipate barriers with “if–then” plans (implementation intentions). Assign responsibility and schedule the steps.
    • Implementation
      • Aim: Do the plan, track completion, and note any barriers in real time.
      • Supports: Use calendars, reminders, accountability check-ins, and brief skills as needed (e.g., communication scripts for a difficult conversation, micro-breaks to manage stress).
    • Review and Refinement
      • Aim: Evaluate what happened, what worked, what didn’t, and why.
      • Approach: Treat each cycle as a learning loop. Reinforce any progress, adjust goals or tactics, and sequence the next step. This builds mastery and resilience.

    Evidence of Efficacy

    Research surrounding PST has indicated its effectiveness in treating various populations and mental health conditions. Studies have shown that PST can significantly reduce depressive symptoms, enhance coping mechanisms, and improve overall quality of life. Its structured framework allows for flexibility, making it applicable across diverse settings, including clinical environments, community mental health programmes, and individual therapy sessions.

    Moreover, meta-analyses have demonstrated that PST is a valuable intervention, particularly for individuals facing stressful life circumstances. Longitudinal studies suggest that the benefits of PST extend beyond the end of treatment, equipping individuals with lifelong problem-solving skills that foster resilience. This enduring impact underscores the treatment’s potential as a preventative measure against future mental health issues.

    Measuring Success

    • Symptom reduction: Lower scores on depression/anxiety scales.
    • Functional gains: Improved attendance, productivity, social engagement, or self-care routines.
    • Self-efficacy: Increased confidence ratings in handling future problems.
    • Problem resolution: Concrete milestones achieved (e.g., debt payment plan initiated, conflict meeting held, medical appointments scheduled).

    How to Get Started Right Now

    1. List your top 3 current stressors. Choose one that is both important and realistically changeable in the next two weeks.
    2. Define the problem in one sentence and write a SMART goal.
    3. Brainstorm at least 8 possible actions, including micro-steps and people you could ask for support.
    4. Select 1–2 options to test this week. Create a simple action plan: what, when, where, with whom, and what you’ll do if a barrier appears.
    5. Schedule a brief review date to learn and adjust. Use depression and anxiety scales to measure improvement.

    Conclusion

    In summary, Problem Solving Treatment (PST) represents a vital approach in the spectrum of therapeutic interventions available for mental health issues. By focusing on enhancing problem-solving skills, individuals can gain greater control over their lives, fostering resilience and improving well-being. Through structured phases of problem identification, solution generation, evaluation, and implementation, PST empowers individuals to address their challenges proactively.

    Supported by robust evidence of efficacy, PST stands out as a versatile and transformative tool in the realm of psychological treatment, offering hope and practical strategies for those navigating the complexities of life’s challenges. As mental health continues to be a global priority, the application and further development of PST will remain critical in promoting psychological resilience and well-being.

  • I Am Attracted To and I Have Empathy Towards Dangerous Souls at Penance

    I Am Attracted To and I Have Empathy Towards Dangerous Souls at Penance

    I decided to go into forensics because since I was a child, I had a natural gift of dealing with troubled individuals so as to keep myself safe. I grew up in Colombia during the 90s, a time when the Constitution of 1991 was established, and a time when violence, narco-cartels, the paramilitary, satanic sects, death squads, and fresh magnicides took place. Indeed, utter political chaos was the status quo. Yes, Colombia was in deep crisis during this decade, and psychological deviations were all over the place. What seemed normal everywhere, was also a hyper-manifestation, and hypernormalisation of what now is classified as abnormal.

    Among the many ills of Colombia, were sexual deviations. And that’s how my ‘career’ into forensic psychoanalysis began when I was only six years old.

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