The human brain is undoubtedly a complex and intricate organ. It governs a wide range of functions, thoughts, and behaviours, all while acting as the central hub for processing information and coordinating the body’s actions. Given its significance, scientists and researchers have dedicated countless hours to unravelling the mysteries of the brain. One promising avenue of exploration in this field is the modulation of neural activity.
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Neural modulation refers to the ability to influence or change the firing patterns and activity levels of neurons within the brain. This can be achieved through a variety of methods, including electrical stimulation, optogenetics, and pharmaceutical interventions. By modulating neural activity, researchers aim to gain a deeper understanding of how the brain works and potentially develop new treatments for neurological disorders.
One of the most widely recognised techniques for modulating neural activity is electrical stimulation. By applying electrical currents to specific regions of the brain, scientists can directly control or modulate the activity of neurons in those areas. This method has been successfully used in a variety of applications, such as deep brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease and transcranial magnetic stimulation for depression.
Another powerful tool in modulating neural activity is optogenetics, a technique that combines genetic engineering and light-based stimulation of neurons. By introducing light-sensitive proteins into specific brain cells, researchers can activate or inhibit the neurons using focused light beams. Optogenetics has been instrumental in studying the relationship between neuronal activity and behaviour in animal models and has the potential to revolutionise our understanding of the brain’s inner workings.
Pharmaceutical interventions represent yet another strategy for modulating neural activity. Traditional drugs targeting neurotransmitters have long been used to treat various neurological conditions, such as schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety disorders. However, new advancements in drug delivery systems and the development of more specific and targeted medications are opening up exciting possibilities for modulating neural activity with greater precision and fewer side effects.
The ability to modulate neural activity holds tremendous potential for understanding and even manipulating brain function. By selectively activating or inhibiting specific neurons, scientists can examine the causal relationship between neural activity and various cognitive processes or behaviours. This knowledge could be transformative in fields such as cognitive neuroscience, as it offers a way to investigate the underlying mechanisms of perception, memory formation, decision-making, and more.
Furthermore, modulating neural activity has the potential to pave the way for groundbreaking treatments for neurological disorders. By restoring or normalising neural activity in affected brain regions, it might be possible to alleviate symptoms and improve the quality of life for individuals with conditions like Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, or even spinal cord injuries.
Nevertheless, it is crucial to approach the modulation of neural activity with caution and ethics in mind. The brain is a delicate and intricate system, and any manipulation should be done with careful consideration for potential risks and unintended consequences. It is essential that research in this area continues to prioritise ethics, informed consent, and safety measures.
In conclusion, modulating neural activity represents a fascinating and promising avenue of research for understanding the brain and developing treatments for neurological disorders. Whether through electrical stimulation, optogenetics, or pharmaceutical interventions, scientists are gradually unlocking the secrets of the brain and inching closer to harnessing its full potential. As our knowledge and understanding expand, we can hope for a future where the mysteries of the mind are demystified, leading to improved well-being and advancements in neuroscience.
The human brain is an intricate organ that controls every aspect of our lives, including our thoughts, emotions, and actions. Within this remarkable system, the frontal lobes play a critical role in executing cognitive functions crucial for decision-making, problem-solving, and behaviour regulation. However, when these frontal executive abilities become impaired or weakened, it can lead to a condition known as frontal executive deficits. In this blog post, we will delve into this fascinating topic, examining the causes, symptoms, and potential treatments associated with frontal executive deficits.
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Understanding Frontal Executive Deficits
Frontal executive deficits refer to a set of cognitive and behavioural impairments caused by damage or dysfunction in the frontal lobes of the brain. The frontal lobes, located at the front of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead, are responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, often referred to as executive functions. These functions include working memory, attention, planning, decision-making, impulse control, and social behaviour regulation.
Causes and Risk Factors
Frontal executive deficits can be caused by a variety of factors, such as traumatic brain injury, stroke, tumours, infections, neurodegenerative diseases (like Alzheimer’s disease), or developmental disorders (like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – ADHD). Additionally, chronic drug and alcohol abuse can also lead to these deficits. Common risk factors may include advancing age, genetic predisposition, and certain medical conditions affecting brain function.
Symptoms and Effects
Individuals with frontal executive deficits may experience various cognitive, emotional, and behavioural symptoms. These can manifest as difficulties with planning and organising tasks, problems with attention and concentration, impaired decision-making abilities, reduced inhibitory control, emotional instability, impulsivity, decreased empathy, and challenges in social interactions. These symptoms can significantly impact daily life, professional performance, and personal relationships, making it crucial to identify and address them appropriately.
Treatment and Management
Treatment for frontal executive deficits depends on the underlying cause and severity of the impairment. In some cases, addressing the primary condition or injury through medications, surgeries, or rehabilitation therapies might help alleviate the deficits. Additionally, cognitive rehabilitation programs, which focus on compensatory strategies and skill-building exercises, can aid in restoring some executive functions. Behavioural interventions, including therapeutic techniques, counselling, and support groups, can also assist in managing emotional and behavioural symptoms associated with frontal executive deficits.
Strategies for Coping and Support
Alongside professional treatments, individuals with frontal executive deficits can adopt certain strategies to cope with daily challenges. These may include breaking tasks into smaller, more manageable steps, using visual aids and reminders, maintaining a structured routine, practising stress management techniques, seeking social support, and communicating openly with family, friends, and employers about their difficulties. Additionally, engaging in mentally stimulating activities, such as puzzles, reading, or learning new skills, can help maintain cognitive function and enhance overall well-being.
Conclusion
Frontal executive deficits represent a significant challenge for individuals affected by damage or dysfunction in the frontal lobes. Understanding the causes, symptoms, and treatment options is crucial in providing appropriate support and intervention. With advancements in medical science and rehabilitation techniques, there is hope for improving and managing these deficits. By nurturing resilience, adopting coping strategies, and fostering a supportive environment, individuals with frontal executive deficits can lead fulfilling lives, utilising their strengths while mitigating the impact of these cognitive impairments.
Our brain is like a complex network, composed of billions of interconnected nerve cells called neurons. These neurons communicate with each other through connections called synapses, which allow the transmission of information in the form of electrical and chemical signals. But what happens when the brain needs to learn something new or adapt to its environment? This is where synaptic plasticity comes into play.
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Synaptic plasticity refers to the ability of synapses to change their strength or efficiency in transmitting signals. It is the fundamental mechanism underlying learning, memory formation, and even recovery after brain injuries. Without synaptic plasticity, our brains would be stagnant, unable to acquire new knowledge or adapt to changes in the world around us.
When we learn something new, like a new skill or a new fact, LTP enables the synapses involved in that learning process to become more efficient at transmitting signals. It is like strengthening a pathway in the brain, making it easier for information to flow through and for that specific memory to be retained. This is why consistent practice is crucial for skill acquisition – it reinforces the synaptic connections involved in that skill.
On the other hand, LTD plays an essential role in sculpting the brain’s connections. While LTP strengthens synapses, LTD weakens them. This process is necessary for the brain to eliminate unnecessary connections and refine its network. It allows the brain to adapt to changes in the environment, forget irrelevant or outdated information, and make room for new memories and skills.
Synaptic plasticity is not only important for learning and memory but also for recovery after brain injuries or diseases. When a brain region is damaged, nearby neurons can undergo changes in synaptic strength to compensate for the lost function. This remarkable ability of the brain to rewire itself, called neuroplasticity, relies on synaptic plasticity to create new connections and restore functionality.
In conclusion, synaptic plasticity is a fascinating phenomenon that allows our brains to learn, remember, and adapt. It provides the flexibility needed for our brains to constantly change and grow, sculpting connections and shaping our knowledge and abilities. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of synaptic plasticity, we pave the way for new therapies and interventions that could potentially enhance our cognitive abilities and improve lives for those affected by brain disorders.
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a complex mental health condition characterised by a pervasive pattern of instability in mood, behaviour, and interpersonal relationships. People with BPD often struggle with intense emotions, impulsivity, and a distorted self-image. While the exact cause of BPD remains unclear, researchers have identified a potential role for the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in the development and manifestation of this disorder.
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The vmPFC is a region of the brain located in the prefrontal cortex, responsible for emotional regulation, decision-making, and self-control. It plays a critical role in integrating emotions, thoughts, and behaviours to produce appropriate responses in social situations. In individuals with BPD, abnormalities in the vmPFC have been observed, and these may contribute to the dysregulation of emotions and difficulties with interpersonal relationships.
One key aspect of BPD is an exaggerated response to emotional stimuli. People with BPD often experience intense emotional reactions, such as anger, sadness, or anxiety, which are difficult to regulate. Studies using brain imaging techniques have demonstrated that individuals with BPD display abnormal activity in the vmPFC when processing emotional information. This suggests that the vmPFC may have a reduced ability to regulate emotional responses in people with BPD, leading to heightened emotional reactivity.
Furthermore, the vmPFC plays an essential role in decision-making processes, particularly in contexts that involve risk and reward assessment. People with BPD frequently engage in impulsive and risky behaviours, such as self-harm, substance abuse, or reckless driving. These behaviours may result from an impaired vmPFC, leading to difficulties in adequately considering long-term consequences and making sound decisions.
While the role of the vmPFC in BPD is becoming increasingly recognised, it is important to note that this is just one aspect of a complex biopsychosocial disorder. BPD likely arises from a combination of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental factors. Therefore, understanding the vmPFC’s involvement is a step towards a holistic understanding of BPD but does not fully explain the disorder’s complexities.
Nevertheless, identifying the role of the vmPFC in BPD offers potential avenues for therapeutic interventions. Targeting this region of the brain through techniques such as cognitive-behavioural therapy or neurofeedback could potentially help individuals with BPD regulate their emotions more effectively, make better decisions, and improve their social interactions.
In conclusion, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex appears to play a crucial role in Borderline Personality Disorder. Dysregulation in this brain region may contribute to the emotional instability, impulsivity, and difficulties in social interactions experienced by individuals with BPD. Further research on the vmPFC and its connections to other brain regions will provide valuable insights into BPD’s underlying mechanisms, ultimately leading to improved diagnostic tools and more effective treatment options.
According to the Online Etymology Dictionary (n.d.a), the adjective “artificial” originates from 14c France meaning “not natural or spontaneous”, and it began to be used in the English language from 16c to describe “anything made in imitation of, or as a substitute for, what is natural”. The etymology of the noun “mind” is rooted in late 12c, when the word “mynd” was used to describe“that which feels, wills, and thinks; the intellect”(Online Etymology Dictionary, n.d.b); a derivation from the Old English word “gemynd” which encompassed the concepts of memory, conscience, intention, and purpose among other things. This essay explores the concept of “artificial minds”, some of its psychological perspectives and what all this reveals about human minds.
What is an artificial mind? Based on the above explained, if the word artificial has for centuries carried the meaning of imitation and substitution for- in this case- human nature; it is not surprising that some people have reported feeling afraid about the possibility of robots taking over the world (McDonald, 2019). Assuming that machines think in the same way as humans is like anthropomorphising (ascribing human qualities to nonhuman animals; Hewson, 2015). Yasemin J. Erden defined this phenomenon as “problem of other minds” in her chapter of Living Psychology: From the Everyday to the Extraordinary (2015, p. 109), where she posed the question“how do you know that the author of this chapter is a person?”. Her name is written as the author of the chapter, and the paragraphs are written in a meticulously eloquent manner. The content is highly specialised. Yet, the reader is invited to question all this, and to consider the possibility of her identity being robotic. Once her name is searched though, it can be seen that she is human, as well as a philosopher at St. Mary University in London (Google, n.d.). Nevertheless, her question should not be underestimated in any way, as there exist bots that can rigorously write essays for humans (Essaybot, n.d).
If mind is software and body is hardware (Computational modeling of the brain – Sylvain Baillet, 2016), does that mean that the two work independently? Descartes initially questioned whether matter (body) was the result of mind (imagination). He stated “I think, therefore I am”, claiming that body was a manifestation or hallucination of thought (Erden, 2015, pp. 111-112); and eventually evolved his perspective to say that mind and body are connected specifically through the pineal gland of the brain. Under the same token, dualist theorists believe that the strongest evidence for the existence of mind as a separate entity from brain is the concept of qualia- coined by Chalmers (1996) as cited in Erden (2015)- which encompasses the subjective, first-person experience of the individual. Erden illustrates this concept with an analogy of eating and enjoying chocolate (2015), explaining that one thing is to understand how the body absorbs and digests chocolate, and another thing is to enjoy the taste of it. Could a bot understand the experience of enjoyment? After all, not even some legislators seem to understand the concept of enjoyment in relation to- for example- human rights law (United Nations, n.d.; ECHR, 1950).
In contrast, materialist theorists claim that specific parts of the human brain are responsible for intelligent functions such as the processing of sensory inputs (stimuli), and the creation of responses (outputs; Erden, 2015, pp. 115-117). But, what is meant by intelligence? The answer to Alan Turing’s question (1950) cited in (Erden, 2015, pp. 120-121) “can machines think?” depends on the way the words “mind” and “thinking” are used (Erden, 2015, p. 122). For instance, the intelligent nature of human memory is highly complex (Prosecution Witness Janeen DeMarte Explains Why She Does Not Believe Jodi Arias’ Memory Fog Story, 2013). Could a machine learn to absorb, encode, store, and retrieve information similarly to a person? In order to understand this, Naoyuki Sato and Yogo Yamaguchi (2010) from Japan reviewed computational models of the hippocampi, the two organs of the brain mainly responsible for the formation of episodic memory (remembering what, where, and when). Their (Sato and Yamaguchi, 2010) evidence suggests that when the hippocampal system is damaged, the ability for self object-space processing is lost. Nevertheless, they state that more brain regions are involved in the process, and that models which can take into account more than one brain region simultaneously need to be developed.
This is why one of the biggest challenges in computational modeling is to equip artificial minds and robotic bodies with proprioception (Erden, 2015), the human ability to position one’s body within timespace and context. Understanding such computational complications elucidates the everyday complexity of human nature (including perceptual, sensorimotor abilities; Erden, 2015). For humans, working their way from point A to point B in timespace can be relatively straightforward, and if uncertainties or anomalies arise, these can be dealt with successfully (e.g. avoiding an obstacle). However, with no hippocampus and no cognitive map on which to rely; robots find it overwhelming to understand the where, when, and what of situations; especially when it comes to unexpected contingencies or events. John McCarthy and Patrick Hayes (1969) cited in Erden (2015) called this phenomenon the frame problem. As a consequence, psychologists such as Aaron Sloman (The Open University, 2019b) have placed their emphasis on the computational modelling of the human information processing system. Erden (2015, p. 124) defines this framework as computational theory of mind (CTM), and the most advanced artificially intelligent robotic inventions are equipped with proprioceptive sensors which allow them to compute and interact with the world around them more competently (Erden, 2015). Nevertheless, Margaret Boden from the University of Sussex in England states that to model some mysterious processes such as creativity is difficult, because humans do not always understand how they do what they do (The Open University, 2019a).
To summarise, the concept of artificial minds has helped cognitive scientists understand the complex functions of everyday living in humans. Machines can indeed think, they just don’t think in the same way as humans. Human intelligence and its neuroscientific structure is not easy to model in full magnitude, and not all functions are clear enough to warrant replication. The human mind remains somewhat mysterious, and subjective experience remains an area for further research. Could this be what is meant by the philosophical latin concept of DEUS EX MACHINA? (GOD FROM THE MACHINE). The future is uncertain.
References
Computational modeling of the brain – Sylvain Baillet (2016) Youtube video, added by Serious Science [Online]. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oW6DN08wwE (Accessed 29 October 2019).
Council of Europe, European Convention on Human Rights, as amended by Protocols Nos. 11 and 14, ECHR, (4 November 1950) [Online]. Available at https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf (Accessed 28 October 2019).
Erden, Y. J. (2015) ‘Artificial minds’, in Turner, J., Hewson, C., Mahendran, K. and Stevens, P. (eds), Living Psychology: From the Everyday to the Extraordinary, Milton Keynes, The Open University, pp. 109-146.
EssayBot (n.d.) How It Works [Online]. Available at https://www.essaybot.com/ (Accessed 28 October, 2019)
Hewson, C., Ramsden P., and Turner, J. (2015) ‘Animal minds’, in Turner, J., Hewson, C., Mahendran, K. and Stevens, P. (eds), Living Psychology: From the Everyday to the Extraordinary, Milton Keynes, The Open University, pp. 63-99.
Prosecution Witness Janeen DeMarte Explains Why She Does Not Believe Jodi Arias’ Memory Fog Story (2013) Youtube video, added by PK Report [Online]. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NlnoRHufmok (Accessed 29 October 2019).
Sato, N. and Yamaguchi, Y. (2010) ‘Simulation of Human Episodic Memory by Using a Computational Model of the Hippocampus’, Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Japan, Future University/ Brain Science Institute, pp. 1-11 [Online]. Available at http://downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2010/392868.pdf (Accessed 29 October, 2019).
