Celebrities often appear to have it all – fame, fortune, and adoring fans. However, just like anyone else, they are not immune to making mistakes and bad decisions. In fact, some celebrities have found themselves on the wrong side of the law, despite their privileged position in society. Here are some famous faces who have committed crimes:
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1. Lindsay Lohan: The former child star and actress has had numerous run-ins with the law, including DUIs, drug possession, and theft. Lohan’s legal troubles have overshadowed her acting career and landed her in and out of rehab multiple times.
2. Charlie Sheen: The controversial actor has a history of violence and substance abuse issues. Sheen has been arrested for domestic violence, assault, and drug possession, making headlines for his erratic behaviour and public meltdowns.
3. Martha Stewart: The renowned businesswoman and TV personality was convicted of insider trading in 2004. Stewart served time in prison for lying to investigators about the sale of stock, tarnishing her reputation and brand in the process.
4. Chris Brown: The R&B singer has a long history of legal troubles, including assault charges, probation violations, and drug possession. Brown’s tumultuous personal life has overshadowed his music career, leading to public outcry and controversy.
5. Winona Ryder: The actress was famously arrested for shoplifting in 2001. Ryder was caught stealing thousands of dollars worth of merchandise from a department store, resulting in a high-profile court case and community service.
These are just a few examples of celebrities who have crossed the line and faced the consequences of their actions. While their fame and wealth may have initially protected them from scrutiny, their criminal behaviour ultimately caught up with them. It serves as a reminder that no one is above the law, regardless of their social status or public image.
In conclusion, the stories of celebrities who have committed crimes serve as cautionary tales about the dangers of hubris and entitlement. It is a stark reminder that everyone is capable of making mistakes and poor decisions, regardless of their celebrity status. As fans, it is important to separate the art from the artist and hold them accountable for their actions, just like anyone else.
The Minoan-Mycenean stage of psychological development is a fascinating period in ancient history that offers valuable insights into the psychological development of individuals and societies. This era, which roughly spans from around 2000 to 1200 BCE, encompassed the civilisations of the Minoans on the island of Crete and the Myceneans in mainland Greece.
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One of the key aspects of the Minoan-Mycenean stage of psychological development is the emphasis on complexity and sophistication in art, architecture, and cultural practices. The Minoans, known for their elaborate palaces and vibrant frescoes, were a peaceful and prosperous society that placed a high value on beauty and harmony. They worshipped a mother goddess, celebrated fertility and nature, and valued creativity, the arts, and leisure activities.
On the other hand, the Myceneans were a more warlike and militaristic society, known for their formidable fortresses, heroic myths, and warrior culture. They worshipped various deities, such as Zeus and Poseidon, and engaged in trade, commerce, and conquest. The Myceneans also developed a writing system known as Linear B, which was used for administrative purposes.
In terms of psychological development, the Minoan-Mycenean stage reflects a transition from a more matriarchal and peaceful society (Minoans) to a more patriarchal and militaristic society (Myceneans). This shift can be seen in the art, architecture, and cultural practices of the two civilisations, as well as in their social structures, religious beliefs, and values.
The Minoan-Mycenean stage also highlights the importance of psychological factors in shaping the development of civilisations. The Minoans, with their emphasis on beauty, harmony, and creativity, may have fostered a more nurturing and empathetic mindset among their people, while the Myceneans, with their focus on power, conquest, and glory, may have fostered a more competitive and aggressive mindset.
Overall, the Minoan-Mycenean stage of psychological development offers valuable lessons about the ways in which psychological factors can influence the development of individuals and societies. By studying this period in ancient history, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between culture, psychology, and human behaviour.
Genocide is a deeply disturbing and horrifying act, characterised by the intentional destruction of a particular ethnic, religious, or national group. Despite the world’s countless pledges to never let such atrocities happen again after the Nazi Holocaust, it is disheartening to acknowledge that genocides continue to occur even in recent history. This blog post aims to shed light on 10 tragic genocides that have taken place in the last few decades, highlighting the importance of remembrance, education, and the urgent need to prevent such atrocities from ever happening again.
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1. Rwandan Genocide (1994)
One of the most infamous genocides in modern history, the Rwandan Genocide claimed the lives of nearly one million Tutsis and moderate Hutus in just 100 days. The international community’s failure to intervene swiftly remains a grim reminder of the far-reaching consequences of inaction and the importance of global cooperation.
2. Srebrenica Massacre (1995)
During the Balkan Wars, Bosnian Serb forces captured and executed more than 8,000 Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) men and boys in Srebrenica, deemed a UN-protected safe zone. This tragic event showcased the limitations and shortcomings of peacekeeping forces’ ability to prevent genocide.
3. Darfur Genocide (2003-present)
While its intensity has subsided in recent years, the Darfur Genocide, also known as the first genocide of the 21st century, has claimed the lives of up to 400,000 people. The conflict between the Sudanese government and rebel groups led to widespread displacement, rape, and mass killings.
4. Rohingya Genocide (2017)
In Myanmar, the Rohingya population faced extreme persecution, including systematic killings, torture, and mass displacement. Thousands died as a result, prompting international condemnation for this state-sponsored genocide.
5. Bosnian Genocide (1992-1995)
During the Bosnian War, Serb forces targeted Bosniaks and Croats, committing widespread atrocities such as mass killings, rape camps, and ethnic cleansing. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia has since prosecuted those responsible.
6. Israel-Gaza Genocide (2023-present)
In the aftermath of the brutal Hamas attack on the 7th October, 2023 against thousands of Israeli civilians during a music festival where rape, savage murder of babies and adults, and other things took place; Israel decided to execute a genocide in Gaza. To this day, over 20,000 Palestinians have died, including thousands of children; and many more are displaced.
7. Guatemalan Genocide (1981-1983)
During the Guatemalan Civil War, indigenous Mayans endured widespread massacres, forced disappearances, and sexual violence orchestrated by the military regime. Thousands were systematically eliminated due to their perceived association with leftist groups.
8. Syrian Civil War (2011-present)
While initially a political uprising against the Assad regime, the Syrian conflict quickly escalated into a full-scale war. War crimes, including the deliberate targeting and devastation of civilian populations, have claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands and displaced millions.
9. South Sudanese Civil War (2013-present)
Since gaining independence in 2011, South Sudan has been engulfed in a civil war marked by ethnically-driven violence, including mass killings, rape, and widespread hunger. A fragile peace agreement exists, but challenges persist in restoring stability and preventing further acts of genocide.
10. Uyghur Genocide (ongoing)
The ongoing persecution and human rights abuses against the Uyghur Muslim minority in Xinjiang, China, have been described by experts as constituting genocide. Forced internment, mass surveillance, and cultural assimilation efforts are all part of a systematic campaign targeting this marginalised community.
Conclusion
The 10 genocides discussed above serve as a stark reminder that despite our advancement as a global society, we still struggle to prevent such monstrous acts. It is crucial to amplify the voices of survivors, educate future generations, and strengthen international mechanisms to prevent, halt, and punish these heinous crimes. By learning from our past, embracing empathy, and actively working towards human rights and justice for all, we can hope to build a future where the scourge of genocide becomes a dark chapter confined to the annals of history.
This is a list of drill hip hop artists from diverse countries, and whom are very illustrative about their country’s status quo. These songs reflect the way in which the unconscious collective expresses their perception of reality through art, film, and music. I particularly find these music videos fascinating because each country listed gives us a clear political picture through their digital media productions. In this blog post, I will list different countries and both a male and a female artist in order to represent the status quo of both the feminine and also the masculine, as these tend to have varied manifestations. Of course, some women will feel aligned with the masculine, and some men will feel aligned with the feminine. This is okay and also normal. I recommend you press play and watch the videos so you can also appreciate their art. I obviously deconstruct meanings through psychoanalysis of the artwork. I always find that music videos tell us so much about socio-cultural backgrounds.
FULL VANDAL is a very political and masculine track that has been also carefully illustrated in video, clearly showing the perspective of the current Spanish resistance, and its arts movement which consists of wearing masks and acting like vandals on camera whilst disclosing many political truths. For instance, in this song, SWIT EME states that the government wanted to scare them, but that he does not see anyone afraid in his group. He also says that he does not lift weights, he instead lifts business companies, which are heavier. This is a witty statement, among the many more references he makes about topics such as history, politics, culture, and generational trauma.
333 (Climax) is a TECHNO masterpiece which effectively expresses the fiery feminine present in the current Spanish status quo. It is really excellently made, both in audio and in video. It really delves into the vital feminine energy, and transmits feminist, revolutionary vibes which can also be appreciated in how the video has a lot of scenes shot in red and black, the traditional colours of anarchy. Santa Salut gives a wonderful performance, as she always does. Xina Mora also performs in fabulous ways, and this song would get even the most boring person in the world stimulated. It could inspire a head nod to the beat, or it could ignite a rave. This song is powerful.
סטילה has both, a female and a male singer which means that a single music video can clearly encompass both, the feminine and the masculine. The lyrics are clearly inspired by the events that took place in Israel on the 7th October, 2023 when they were brutally attacked by Hamas, which is basically the Palestinian government. According to this song, this event was enough to get the entire country ‘in uniform’ and ready for war. The song also explicitly states that such heinous acts will not be forgiven and proudly sing about their military prowess, explaining the Israel Defence Forces (IDF) are ready to attack. I personally found this artwork very impressive, as both military and arts are united. It shows a lot of cohesion and harmony within the country. It expresses de facto and de jure unity, something that not many countries showcase.
The Entrapreneur music video truly illustrates the masculine logistics in the UK’s status quo. It brings the prioritisation of business concerns, technology, and making money through work to the forefront. This is despite the many challenges and realities the country faces. It also speaks of customer service, and seems to make a few romantic references, such as his disclosed crush for Billie Eillish. This artwork is the symbolic representation of what we would call the standard bloke with goals and aspirations who’s trying his best to succeed despite emotional dramas happening. It is a very common mentality in the UK.
Sorry Not Sorryis a very playful artwork which shows the feminine spirit of the status quo in the United Kingdom. It delivers messages of resilience, constant celebration, fun, and the acknowledgement of love. Feminism is becoming every day more common in the country, and more women find themselves engaging in activities which make them feel happy, rather than sobbing about the behaviour of their loved partners.
VENEZUELA SE RESPETA translates to English as ‘VENEZUELA IS TO BE RESPECTED’. It is a very masculine and authoritative title. The lyrics are phenomenal, and Junior Caldera manages to speak about very complex political topics, such as xenophobia. This Latino-American artwork expresses a predisposition for international competition. He also talks about how Venezuela’s prosperity has declined over the decades, specifically mentioning the topic of migration, which illustrates the changes in economic stability of the country. I believe the Venezuelan status quo expresses a need for recognition and respect. He really illustrates this financial turbulence in these lyrics.
In the meantime the Venezuelan feminine is taking things into her own hands, and taking risks to affirm her power. LA JEFE translates into English as ‘THE FEMALE BOSS’.This seems like a very empowered feminist culture stemming from its expressions of hip hop as shown in this video. Nina Fre$h states that she had a conversation with God. This reveals the hypernormalisation of what science calls psychosis. Nevertheless, religion has made itself to be respected in the law of many worldly jurisdictions. Nina truly invests in the superstition quo which is shared by her followers. This feminine seeks to embrace her spirituality and so this is strong in their status quo. Furthermore, there is certain persecution happening internally at the moments towards those who diverge. I predict that more divergence will take place in Venezuela.
DRILL RU 6 is obviously the sixth release in a sequence and brings the masculine to express a lot about the dark figure of crime, whether consciously or unconsciously. This cultural signification is to a point very aesthetically similar to the Spanish masculine, though this is way heavier. OPT x TSB are very good at what they do. The music video signifies financial prosperity despite the criminal cues. The expressionism of the video is captivating at a forensic psychological level. The representation of prosperity and crime is one that also resembles the art movement of Spanish film but it is much heavier. It’s dark and esoteric.
The Russian feminine makes also a strong introduction. Even though NIKOLAEV CHALLENGE is years old, it illustrates the distress they’ve collectively endured. Artists have ceased to do art, indicating inertia. I predict that in 2024, many Russian artists will feel inspired to pursue their art goals. Even the Russian feminine expresses in masculine ways, having adopted the temperament with which they have been treated in their jurisdictions. This video reveals a lot about Russian expressionism. Currently, the female Russian feminine is in silence.
Won’t Back Down reveals a lot noradrenaline and testosterone in the masculine status quo. It really expresses a very disturbed ego quo. It feels hectic, and yet art-wise it is mind-blowing. It is a masterpiece. Eminem is very talented. There is a sense of alert which has become norm in the United States, and this is transmitted by Eminem through his complex lyrics. The positive message is not to back down, which is very empowering. There is a feminine within the masculine, and vice versa.
Cost Em is a very fresh expression of resistance against the masculine quo. Interestingly, its got a prima facie hectic energy which parallels the masculine. I predict that these two forces will collaborate more in 2024. It does express some disorganisation, indicative of mental illness. Similarly to the masculine, the ultimate message is resilience.
W is very fresh, and so psychoanalytically interpreting it is a pleasure. Words fail me to signify what I perceive in this enlightening video, although I can mention that his reference to Eminem is very interesting. This is the sort of video where decreasing the playback speed is worth it as the message can better be absorbed when the message drips slowly. It expresses a very illuminated and intellectual masculine, privileged with being ahead of the spiritual game of the world. The lyrics are very deep and the message is strong, and constructive to the masses. Impressive Hindu arts.
Even though this video is one year old, it speaks way ahead of time about the feminine essence I have been talking about. This is not surprising as Indians are very intellectual and spiritual people. I predict they will continue to develop their spiritual sciences, and will continue to invest in the civil development of their jurisdiction. Soon, we might see India becoming a global power due to its advanced knowledge and alignment with the consciousness shift taking place worldwide. And since Indians are more regularly turning to English in their digital expressions, the English-speaking people will be pleased to be able to understand the song’s lyrics.
018 is very interesting. It has a religious preamble where they talk about Israel, indicating prophecies. It proceeds to show a particular congregation before it changes rhythm into a more neutral vibe. It has very strong, fast lyrics revealing situations and ideas happening in South Africa. It also has a consistent and strong religious undertone, indicating that the masculine quo has high levels of superstition, something most often expressed through feminine conduits.
Alphas is a fascinating feminine quo which not only is very politically educated, but it is also very progressive. It expresses the desire for a positive sum game where domination is shared between hegemonies. This feminine is very explicit about politics, including their decisions to include a very multicultural crowd in the video. Furthermore, this video gives the impression that women are able to dominate if they decide to do so in South Africa, and this is culturally celebrated in arts such as this one.
The United Arab Emirates are not proliferous when it comes to hip hop music. Many careers have died despite having gained some attention. This is why Fire in the Booth by Freek is the track I chose to illustrate their masculine status quo. It expresses a very gangster lifestyle. It is very interesting as he has some deep lyrics. It comes across as a stable, blunt perspective. Freek musically and lyrically extrapolates the emotion from his experiences. Nevertheless, it is concerning that there seems to be no spirituality invested in these energies.
Shut It Down, unlike the masculine quo is very matter of factly about the signifiers they want to transmit. This music video complements the gangster vibes reflected in the masculine. The feminine seems a lot more focused in the arts, and like it’s taking corporate control. This expresses a very empowering mentality for women, as Arabs can at time be severely patriarchal. This is what makes N1YAH a symbol of the superego quo. Very deep and impressive, although lacking some spirituality. I predict that Dubai will begin to tune into the consciousness shift and this will be reflected in their art in a dramatic way.
Street Rap Palestine is thought provoking, politically fresh and emotionally felt by the people of the masculine quo. It provides the Palestinian perspective about the conflict with Israel. The first rapper states that ‘this is the end of religion’, which I thought was a very interesting to say within the Hamas-Israel context. The second rapper states that he is ‘the son of bombing’, which I thought was a very deep thing for him to say. Blood is mentioned often as a reminder that a large portion of Palestinians have recently died as a result of conflicts.
AL KUFIYYEH is a very old song to showcase in this blog spot. The situation is that the Palestinian feminine is not as artistically active as it used to be a decade ago, especially not now. So this gap in Mansour’s work is truly expressive of Palestine’s political situation. It expresses a very assertive feminine energy which embraces the spiritual symbolism of Palestinian culture. It’s a very strong and resilient feminine, and I hope we get to see it express itself soon. It’s empowering and inspiring.
Conclusion
This is the status quo in the continents of the world, some are more historical than others such as the Palestinian status quo. Others are more phenomenological in essence. Several things could be predicted from analysing the hip hop industry of these countries. Israel stands out as a supremely unified and socially organised jurisdiction. There seems to be a unanimous expression which is both, feminine and masculine. This is the only country that did not require two separate artists. How fascinating. Palestine stands as a country where the feminine is currently in silence. And like this, we have explored the status quo of ten different countries from all continents.
Throughout history, various religious and ethnic communities have faced persecution for different reasons. One such historical narrative revolves around the treatment of Jewish people by Islamic societies. While it is important to avoid generalisations, it is crucial to acknowledge and explore instances of persecution to foster better interfaith understanding and promote religious tolerance. In this blog post, we aim to shed light on the historical context, factors, and consequences surrounding the persecution of Jewish people by some within Islamic societies.
Historical Context
The origin of Jewish-Muslim relations dates back over a millennium. During the early years of Islam, Jewish communities thrived in the Arabian Peninsula, with Jews and Muslims coexisting harmoniously in some cases. However, tensions arose as political rivalries and religious differences emerged. Over time, increased Arab-Muslim expansion saw Jewish communities come under varying conditions, ranging from acceptance to marginalisation.
Persecution and Tolerance
Persecution of Jewish people by Muslims is not a uniform phenomenon but should be viewed within specific historical and geographical contexts. During various Islamic dynasties, including the Abbasids, Almohads, and Fatimids, Jewish communities endured periods of persecution. Incidents occurred where discriminatory laws were implemented, synagogues were destroyed, and Jews were subjected to violence, such as the 1066 Granada massacre.
However, it is crucial to recognise that not all Islamic societies carried out systematic persecution of Jews. Islamic rulers, like the Ottoman Empire and Muslim-majority regions under Al-Andalus, were known for religious tolerance, granting Jews considerable autonomy and protecting their rights. These contrasting examples underline the complexity of Jewish-Muslim relations throughout history.
Modern Dynamics
In more recent times, Jewish-Muslim relations have been influenced by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Anti-Israel sentiment, fuelled by political and territorial disputes, has often manifested in anti-Semitism. Unfortunately, this leads to Jewish people, regardless of their affiliation to the conflict, becoming targets of discrimination, harassment, and violence in various communities. As a matter of fact, the modern global Jewish population has longitudinally decreased in Islamic countries, indicating ethnic cleansing, with Jews experiencing a series of attacks which include:
1. Demonisation: Islam propagates negative stereotypes and promotes hatred against Jewish people.
2. Discrimination: Jewish individuals face societal discrimination, such as limited job opportunities or unequal treatment under the law.
3. Violence: Some extremist individuals or groups within Islam engage in violent acts targeting Jewish communities. At times, these acts have included rape as was the case with the recent Hamas attack against Jews on the 7th October, 2023.
4. Forced conversion: Jewish individuals may be pressured or coerced into converting to Islam against their will.
5. Expulsion: Jewish populations may be forcibly expelled from their homes or regions due to religious persecution.
6. Destruction of property: Jewish-owned businesses, synagogues, or religious sites may be targeted and destroyed.
7. Anti-Semitic propaganda: Islamic media, literature, and public discourse may propagate anti-Semitic beliefs, further fuelling persecution.
8. Economic restrictions: Jews may face economic discrimination, including limited restricted business activities.
9. Social exclusion: Jewish communities may face isolation and exclusion from mainstream society due to their religious identity.
Furthermore, when it comes to modern criticisms of Israel’s actions, it is essential to remember that while it is important to differentiate criticism of Israeli policies from anti-Semitism, it is equally vital to prevent generalisations and understand that Jewish individuals worldwide cannot be held responsible for the actions of a nation.
Promoting Interfaith Understanding
Understanding and acknowledging historical and modern instances of persecution is essential to fostering open dialogue and interfaith understanding. It is important to advocate against bigotry, discrimination, and violence in all forms, irrespective of religious or ethnic background.
Efforts to promote interfaith dialogue, education, and cultural exchange are crucial for breaking down misconceptions and promoting empathy between different communities. Jewish and Muslim individuals, alongside leaders and organisations from both faiths, must continue to engage in constructive conversations to address the challenges and find common ground for peaceful coexistence.
Conclusion
Persecution faced by Jewish people by some individuals within Islamic societies is a complex historical reality that deserves scrutiny. While it is crucial to analyse these historical and contemporary dynamics, it is equally important to recognise that this does not represent the beliefs or actions of all Muslims or Islamic societies. Striving for understanding, education, and dialogue will help build bridges and promote religious tolerance and acceptance in diverse, multicultural societies.
Here is a list of videos I have watched and found helpful when it comes to comprehending the Israel-Hamas conflict which is rapidly escalating. I chose a variety of contexts, including religious contexts, because this is a religious war; and understanding the religious significance of current actions being taken is helpful. I hope you enjoy these videos:
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1. A Short History of Hamas (2023)
This video covers well the background of the militant, antisemitic, Palestinian group called ‘HAMAS’, which committed the festival massacre in Israel on the 7th October, 2023.
2. Mounting evidence paints clearer picture of sexual violence during Hamas terror attacks | DW News
This news video explains the grotesque details of the festival massacre which triggered Israel’s retaliation.
3. Why ‘Messiah prophecy’ haunts Netanyahu (2023)
This video explains the religious significance of the Israel-Hamas war. It gives context to longstanding Jewish prophecies.
4. Is Netanyahu attempting to start Armageddon?
This video also introduces the viewers to the religious-Christian significance of the events taking place between Israel and Hamas.
5. Netanyahu says Hitler didn’t want to kill the Jews, but a Muslim convinced him to do it
This video gives some extra historical context for World War II, and creates a relationship between such a history and current events.
According to Lincoln College (2022), autism as a word was first used to describe those who suffered from schizophrenia and who were also ‘withdrawn and self-absorbed’. In 1943, the word was first used to describe a condition of its own and individuals seemed perplexing to clinicians and were scrutinised heavily (Kanner, 1943); followed by the creation of Asperger’s disease in 1944. Later in the 1950s, it was believed that autism was a result of developmental trauma, and mothers of autistic children were heavily criticised as ‘refrigerator mothers’, indicating that they had no emotional warmth.
Eventually, during the 60s and 70s there were changes initiated by parents coming together (and forming the National Autistic Society), and by scientists recognising the disease as biological. This recognition led to segregation schools being implemented for autistic children before a genetic link was discovered in 1974. Yet, it was not until 1979 that a psychological model called ‘the triad of impairments’ was proposed which highlighted difficulties in social interaction, communication, and imagination skills. Then, in 1980 the DSM first recognised Autism Spectrum Disorder, and in 1989 the diagnostic criteria for Aspergers was created before being recognised in 1994. From there on there were national scientific and governmental initiatives to improve practice on understanding and working with autism. Finally, since 2009 World Autism Day has been celebrated.
Currently, there are still people who think that autism happens only to children, or that it is not a disability. Furthermore, only a minority of people understand that autism has no cure. This shows that even though there have been a lot of developments in the history of autism, many misconceptions still persist.
Theories
Initially, it was believed that autism was a form of schizophrenia. Furthermore, the way clinicians used to relate to autistic individuals was very derogatory and subjugating throughout history. Individuals with autism were labelled as ‘mentally retarded’, ‘idiotic’, ‘feeble-minded’, ‘slow or backwards’, or ‘autistic schizoid’ (Lincoln College, 2022). Now individuals are known to have a neurodevelopmental condition which they live with, and which has unique individual needs and no cure. Moreover, autism was considered to be a matter of moral degeneration until the genetic link was discovered and its biological construct was explored.
Kanner (1943) cited in Lincoln College (2022) was the first to propose that autism was a condition of itself and that it was not schizophrenia. This was a major breakthrough. Later on, Aspergers (1944) cited in Lincoln College (2022) proposed that ‘autistic psychopathy’ was the cluster of symptoms now known as ‘Asperger’s syndrome’. He believed that these individuals could not change because autism had no cure. He identified symptoms such as ‘lack of empathy’, and poor ability to make friends, among others. This was another breakthrough. However, autism is not the same as psychopathy, and this should be emphasised.
Moreover, Lincoln College (2022) also states that Wing’s and Gould’s (1979) theory was the first one to mention Aspergers syndrome in a research paper challenging Kanner’s theory and they introduced the model of the ‘triad of impairments’ (social interaction, communication, and imagination). Furthermore, Baron-Cohen et al. (1980) proposed the theory of mind (ToM) theory indicating that individuals with autism struggled to understand the mental states of others. It was stated that this impairment affected most or all aspects of the individual’s life.
Another theory was the ‘extreme male brain theory’ which states that autistic individuals have been exposed to higher levels of testosterone than the average population. This might explain why most autistic individuals are male. Furthermore, Baron-Cohen also proposed the ‘empathising-systemising theory’ which states that autistic individuals can only be empathic by imitating the behaviours of others without really understanding the subjective states of mind of others. This is because autistic individuals are more systematic than empathetic and adapt based on organisational, structural, normative, and routine schemas. This might explain why these individuals have interpersonal difficulties. Finally, the ‘autism spectrum condition’ theory states that individuals with autism have a life-long condition which can vary based on where they are in the spectrum which can range from interpersonal difficulties to verbal communication difficulties (Lincoln College, 2022).
Treatments & Interventions
Electroshock therapy was often used to treat autism in the past and treatments heavily relied on the use of medication. Autistic individuals were placed in asylums and separated from their families during treatment even though a cure does not exist. Nowadays, treatment takes place in the community most of the time, medication is only used where necessary, and psychotherapy is offered in order to help build coping and distress tolerance skills. Furthermore, in the past autistic individuals were segregated from society and placed in special schools. This is now known to have detrimental effects. Hence why nowadays autistic individuals are integrated into mainstream schools with extra support for their needs. Finally, in the past autistic individuals had little or no autonomy and were passive receivers of interventions; whereas now person-centred approaches are the norm, and individuals are encouraged to be autonomous and to live meaningful lives (Lincoln College, 2022) even though the mental health industry still has a lot to improve when it comes to co-production of care plans in general.
Furthermore, Lincoln College (2022) states that in the past autism was treated with medication on a trial and error basis, sometimes having dangerous and now-illicit substances administered such as LSD. Of course, this was harmful. Moreover, aversion therapy was used to operationally condition unwanted responses using punishment as the reinforcing method. Individuals were slapped on the wrist, splashed with cold water, and given electric shocks every time they displayed unwanted behaviours. This was done with the intention of extinguishing such behaviours, and was inhumane. Nowadays, this would be classed as unethical and degrading.
Needless to say, in the past individuals were excessively put through electro-convulsive therapies which consisted of electrocuting the individual’s head in order to forcefully and drastically alter the biological make-up of the brain. This practice is known to induce seizures, memory loss, and other effects. Sadly, this type of torture is still used as treatment in many countries, including the UK. There are several human rights movements such as the Citizens Commission on Human Rights (n.d.) which have made documentaries advocating against this form of therapy due to its many harmful effects. However, among the positive services offered to autistic individuals nowadays are community care (i.e. ensuring individuals are not hospitalised), speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, family therapy, behavioural therapy, medication, parent education, psychosocial treatments, and counselling (Lincoln College, 2022).
